Napalm is a highly flammable, gelatinous substance used as an incendiary weapon. This material is not a simple liquid fuel but a thickened mixture that combines the destructive power of fire with a sticky, adhesive quality. The weapon’s notoriety stems from its ability to cause widespread, prolonged thermal damage to personnel and infrastructure. Understanding the mechanism behind its sustained, intense burn and its devastating biological impact explains why napalm is one of the most feared weapons ever developed.
The Chemistry of Adhesion and Incineration
The unique destructive power of napalm is rooted in its chemical composition, which transforms volatile liquid fuel into a slow-burning gel. The original formulation, developed in 1942, was a mixture of gasoline combined with a gelling agent made from co-precipitated aluminum salts of naphthenic and palmitic acids, which is where the name originates. This structure creates a sticky, viscous fluid that adheres to surfaces, maximizing the duration of the burn. Later variants, often referred to as Napalm-B, replaced these acids with polymeric thickeners like polystyrene, often mixed with petroleum products such as gasoline and benzene.
The addition of these gelling agents enables the two most lethal properties: adhesion and sustained heat. The thick, jelly-like consistency ensures that once the napalm ignites and lands on a target, it clings, making it impossible to brush off or easily extinguish. This viscous nature also allows the fuel to be projected effectively in a directed stream, such as from a flamethrower.
When ignited, napalm burns at high temperatures, typically ranging from 800 to 1,200 degrees Celsius (1,470 to 2,190 degrees Fahrenheit). The polymer thickeners slow the combustion rate of the petroleum fuel, allowing the material to burn for a longer period than unthickened gasoline. This sustained, intense heat is capable of melting materials and ensuring that the fire penetrates deeply into structures and flesh.
The Immediate Physical and Biological Effects
The sustained heat and adhesive nature of napalm cause catastrophic physical and biological trauma. The substance adheres to the skin, continuing to burn until the fuel is consumed or the oxygen is depleted, causing full-thickness burns. These injuries progress quickly beyond the third degree, destroying underlying muscle and bone tissue.
Beyond direct contact, the burning material creates an environment of extreme heat and toxic fumes. The inhalation of superheated air causes internal burns to the respiratory tract, leading to swelling and potential asphyxiation. The combustion process rapidly consumes available oxygen while generating large quantities of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
The resulting injuries are difficult for medical professionals to treat effectively. The deep, prolonged thermal destruction necessitates extensive specialized care, often requiring numerous skin grafting procedures. Survivors frequently face severe disfigurement, loss of function, and a high risk of developing keloids, which are thickened, raised scars.
Historical Context and International Regulation
Napalm was developed for the U.S. Chemical Warfare Service during World War II and was first used in the firebombing campaigns against Japanese cities. Its effectiveness as an area-denial and anti-personnel weapon led to its widespread adoption in subsequent conflicts, including the Korean War and the Vietnam War. Its use in Vietnam gained notoriety due to horrific images of civilian casualties.
The international community regulated the use of such weapons through the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW). Adopted in 1980, Protocol III specifically addresses incendiary weapons, including napalm. This protocol prohibits the use of incendiary weapons against civilian populations and civilian objects in all circumstances.
The regulation also restricts the use of air-delivered incendiary weapons against military targets located within a concentration of civilians. Protocol III does not constitute a worldwide ban on the weapon, allowing its use against purely military targets. Despite the restrictions, the use of napalm remains a highly sensitive and controversial topic in international law and ethics.