Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection remained unpublished for over two decades. This prolonged silence from a scientist known for meticulous observation raises questions about the forces that compelled such a delay. Understanding Darwin’s hesitation requires exploring the intellectual landscape of his era, his rigorous scientific approach, the prevailing social climate, and his personal considerations.
The Revolutionary Idea
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection presented a radical departure from established 19th-century scientific and religious views. Prevailing thought held that species were fixed and individually created, often attributed to divine action. Darwin’s concept proposed that life forms change gradually over immense spans of time through a natural process, where individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. This mechanism directly challenged the widely accepted notion of special creation and implied a common ancestry for all life, including humans. This profound shift in understanding the natural world, moving away from a static, divinely ordered system, was bound to provoke significant intellectual and societal upheaval.
Scientific Scrutiny and Evidence
Darwin was deeply committed to empirical evidence and sought to build an unassailable case for his theory. He spent decades gathering data, conducting experiments, and refining his arguments to anticipate every potential criticism. This rigorous approach included detailed studies, such as his extensive work on barnacles, which lasted for eight years and solidified his reputation as a respected naturalist. His perfectionism meant he accumulated a vast body of evidence, corresponding with naturalists globally to gather diverse information. He envisioned a multi-volume work, far more comprehensive than what he eventually published, to present all his findings and address every conceivable objection.
Societal and Personal Concerns
Beyond scientific rigor, Darwin faced considerable societal and personal pressures that contributed to his hesitation. Victorian England was a deeply religious society, where the Church of England held significant influence and scientific thought was often intertwined with theological explanations of nature. Introducing a theory that contradicted the literal interpretation of creation in the Bible carried the risk of public outcry, religious condemnation, and professional backlash. Earlier ideas of species change had already met with strong negative reactions, providing a cautionary tale.
Darwin himself possessed a cautious personality and generally preferred to avoid controversy. He understood the profound implications of his theory, particularly concerning human origins, and the potential impact on his family and reputation. His wife, Emma, was devoutly religious, and the potential for his work to cause her distress was a personal consideration. Additionally, Darwin suffered from chronic ill health throughout his adult life, which frequently interrupted his work and further contributed to delays.
The Wallace Prompt
The long period of hesitation was ultimately brought to an end by the independent work of Alfred Russel Wallace. Wallace, a naturalist conducting fieldwork in the Malay Archipelago, had conceived a theory of natural selection remarkably similar to Darwin’s. In June 1858, Wallace sent Darwin a manuscript outlining his ideas, requesting that Darwin review it and, if he found it worthy, forward it to geologist Charles Lyell.
The arrival of Wallace’s essay served as a powerful catalyst, forcing Darwin’s hand after years of private work. Faced with the possibility of losing priority for his decades of research, Darwin’s friends, Charles Lyell and Joseph Dalton Hooker, intervened. They arranged for a joint presentation of Wallace’s essay and earlier unpublished writings by Darwin at the Linnean Society of London on July 1, 1858. This pivotal event finally spurred Darwin to rapidly compile an “abstract” of his larger work, which was published in November 1859 as On the Origin of Species.