Anthropometry is the systematic measurement of the human body. This field, involving dimensional descriptors of body size and shape, has been used for understanding human physical variation and identifying individuals. Alphonse Bertillon, a French police officer and biometrics researcher, developed the first scientific identification system based on these physical measurements. His pioneering work laid a foundational stone for modern forensic identification techniques.
The Architect of Anthropometry
Alphonse Bertillon began his career in 1879 as a low-level clerical worker at the Paris Prefecture of Police. Dissatisfied with existing, unsystematic methods of identifying criminals, he recognized the growing problem of recidivism in France. Before Bertillon’s innovations, law enforcement relied on names or unorganized photographs, making it difficult to track repeat offenders. Bertillon sought a scientific and accurate method for human identification, especially for those previously arrested.
The Bertillon System Unveiled
Bertillon’s system, known as “bertillonage,” involved taking precise, standardized measurements of specific bony parts of the body. These measurements included:
Head length and breadth
Middle finger length
Left foot length
Cubit (forearm from elbow to middle fingertip) length
Standing height, sitting height, arm span
Right ear size
Bertillon emphasized precision, using instruments like calipers and measuring tapes to ensure accuracy. Beyond numerical data, the system incorporated detailed descriptive information, such as eye color, hair color, and any unique distinguishing marks. A key component was the standardized photographic record, which Bertillon is credited with inventing. This involved taking both a frontal and a profile photograph, now commonly known as a “mug shot.” All data were meticulously recorded on standardized cards and indexed to create a unique and retrievable personal identification record.
Early Applications and Impact
The Bertillon system was adopted by the Paris Police in 1882. Its effectiveness in identifying repeat offenders quickly became apparent, with Bertillon’s method helping to identify 241 multiple offenders in 1884. The system rapidly gained widespread acceptance, spreading throughout France, across Europe, and eventually to the United States. For instance, it was introduced in the United States in 1887 by Major R.W. McClaughry at the Illinois State Penitentiary.
This systematic approach marked a significant advancement in forensic science and policing. Before bertillonage, reliable identification of individuals posed a major challenge. The system allowed law enforcement agencies to maintain organized records and positively identify individuals, even if they used aliases. Its standardization meant an individual classified in one location could be identified elsewhere.
The Transition to New Methods
Despite its initial success, the Bertillon system had limitations that led to its decline. The method required highly trained operators to take precise measurements, and even slight discrepancies or measurement errors could lead to misidentification. Physical measurements could also change over time due to factors such as aging, weight fluctuations, or injury, which could compromise the accuracy of the initial record. The system was cumbersome and time-consuming, requiring extensive record-keeping and calculations.
A significant drawback was its inability to identify individuals who had similar body proportions. The emergence of fingerprinting provided a more reliable and efficient method of identification. Fingerprints offered a unique and immutable identifier that did not change with age or physical condition. By the early 1900s, fingerprinting gradually replaced the Bertillon system as the primary method of identification in law enforcement worldwide.