Ivory is a hard, white material primarily composed of dentine, originating from the tusks and teeth of various animals. Historically, it has been valued for its beauty, durability, and smooth, lustrous appearance, making it suitable for intricate carving. For millennia, ivory has been used in the creation of artistic pieces, religious objects, and a wide array of functional items such as cutlery handles, piano keys, and billiard balls.
Animals That Produce Ivory
Numerous animal species contribute to the material known as ivory, each with distinct characteristics. Elephants are widely recognized as a primary source, encompassing both African and Asian species. African elephants, the largest land mammals, inhabit 37 countries across the African continent, while Asian elephants are found throughout the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Both male and female African elephants grow tusks, whereas primarily male Asian elephants possess these elongated teeth.
Walruses yield ivory from their two modified upper canine teeth, which can grow up to one meter. These marine mammals are native to Arctic and sub-Arctic regions. Another Arctic inhabitant, the narwhal, is distinguished by a single, spiraled tusk, an elongated left canine tooth up to three meters. Narwhals are toothed whales found in the waters of Canada, Greenland, and Russia.
Ivory is also obtained from extinct animals like mammoths, whose tusks are preserved in permafrost, primarily in Siberia. Other animals include hippopotamuses (denser, rounder teeth), warthogs (curved tusks), and some whale species like the sperm whale (large teeth).
The Process of Ivory Extraction
Ivory acquisition has varied historically and depends on the animal source. For living animals like elephants, ivory was traditionally obtained through hunting. Today, much elephant ivory enters markets through poaching, the illegal killing of elephants for their tusks. Elephant tusks are deeply rooted incisors with nerve endings, meaning their removal is a painful process for the animal.
Ivory can also be collected from animals that have died from natural causes. While naturally shed tusks from large animals are uncommon, this method avoids harm to living populations. For extinct species like mammoths, ivory is recovered from the ground, unearthed from permafrost primarily in Siberia, a process that does not involve living animals.
Current Sources and Supply of Ivory
Today’s ivory supply comes from various pathways, with distinctions between legal and illegal sources. Much newly acquired elephant ivory is illegally obtained through poaching. The international commercial trade in elephant ivory is largely prohibited under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This ban was implemented for Asian elephants in 1975 and for African elephants in 1989, becoming effective in 1990. Poaching activities have drastically reduced elephant populations.
Some elephant ivory in circulation is considered legal if it was acquired prior to these international trade bans. The legality of “pre-ban” ivory often depends on national regulations and typically requires documentation proving its age and origin. CITES has allowed limited exceptions, permitting certain southern African countries with stable elephant populations to conduct one-off sales of government-stockpiled ivory.
Mammoth ivory is a significant legal source, as it comes from extinct animals and is not subject to the same conservation regulations as ivory from living elephants. This ancient ivory is primarily sourced from the permafrost regions of Siberia. Other ivory types, such as from walruses, narwhals, and hippopotamuses, can be legally acquired under specific, often strict, regulations, sometimes by indigenous communities. The trade in these ivories is generally separate from the illegal elephant ivory trade. Fossilized walrus ivory is also available for commercial use.
Experts employ various methods to differentiate between ivory types. Elephant and mammoth ivory both exhibit characteristic Schreger lines when viewed in cross-section. The angles formed by these lines can help distinguish between elephant ivory (typically obtuse, greater than 115 degrees) and mammoth ivory (typically acute, less than 90 degrees). Walrus tusks, in contrast, display a unique marbled appearance in their secondary dentine, aiding in their identification.