The European Starling, Sturnus vulgaris, is a medium-sized bird recognizable by its glossy, iridescent black plumage that becomes heavily speckled with white spots during the winter months. This species possesses a stocky build, a short tail, and a long, pointed bill that turns bright yellow in the breeding season. The starling’s remarkable ecological tolerance and adaptability have allowed it to achieve one of the most extensive global distributions of any bird species, resulting from both its native origins and successful human-assisted introduction worldwide.
Native and Introduced Geographic Range
The native range of the European Starling is centered across the Palearctic region, encompassing temperate Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. The bird naturally occurs from the Azores in the west to central Siberia in the east, and from Norway south to the Mediterranean Sea. The starling’s global footprint significantly expanded after it was intentionally introduced to other continents beginning in the 19th century.
The most notable introduction occurred in North America, where the species was successfully established in 1890 when a group of approximately 80 birds was released in Central Park, New York City. The release was part of an effort to introduce every bird mentioned in the works of William Shakespeare to the New World. From this small population, the species rapidly spread due to its high reproductive rate and adaptable nature. It now spans from coast to coast, extending from southern Canada down to northern Mexico and has become one of the continent’s most numerous songbirds.
Beyond North America, the starling has also been introduced and established in other parts of the Southern Hemisphere, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Argentina, and Fiji. This colonization success has made the starling a cosmopolitan species, now found in all but one of the world’s six major biogeographical realms. The bird’s ability to thrive in a variety of climates and environments has allowed it to maintain a stable presence across this vast, non-native territory.
Preferred Habitation Environments
The starling’s success is strongly tied to its preference for synanthropic habitats—environments significantly altered or created by human activity. It is most abundant in urban centers, suburban developments, and intensive agricultural landscapes, often avoiding large, undisturbed tracts of wild forest or desert. The bird requires a combination of open areas for foraging and nearby structures or trees for safe nesting and roosting.
For feeding, starlings favor open ground with short vegetation, such as mowed lawns, pastures, golf courses, and cultivated fields. They are ground foragers that use their strong, pointed bills to probe the soil for invertebrates, including insects, grubs, and worms. This reliance on easily accessible ground prey contributes to the high population density observed in farmland regions.
For nesting, the starling is a secondary cavity nester, relying on pre-existing holes for its breeding site. While it will use natural tree cavities, it readily uses artificial cavities in human structures. Nests are commonly found in building eaves, ventilation shafts, streetlights, signs, and crevices, which offer protection from predators. The size of the entrance is a limiting factor, as the bird requires a hole approximately one and a half inches in diameter or larger to access the nesting space.
Seasonal Movements and Residency
European Starling populations exhibit a varied movement pattern, being either resident or migratory depending mainly on the climate of their breeding location. In regions with milder winters, such as Southern Europe, Southwestern Asia, and the southern United States, populations typically remain resident year-round.
Conversely, populations in colder, northern latitudes, including Northern Europe, Canada, and the northern US, are generally migratory. These birds move southward in the autumn to escape harsh winter conditions where snow and frozen ground limit access to food. Their migratory routes often follow geographical features, such as coastlines and major river valleys like the Mississippi and Ohio.
During the non-breeding season, starlings are highly gregarious, forming immense flocks that travel together to communal roost sites. These massive winter roosts can contain tens of thousands of individuals and are often located in dense stands of trees, reedbeds, or even on urban structures. The formation of these large, coordinated flocks is known as a murmuration.