The movement of Theobroma cacao began a global journey following its initial discovery by Europeans. Originating in the Amazon basin and cultivated extensively by Mesoamerican civilizations, cacao’s spread was fundamentally reshaped by transatlantic trade routes established after the late 15th century. The Columbian Exchange provided the logistical framework for this geographical expansion, transforming a regional commodity into a global one. Tracing the routes of cultivation reveals distinct phases of expansion, driven by colonial ambition and commercial demand.
Initial Translocation by European Powers
The Spanish Crown sought to break the indigenous monopoly and secure its own supply after gaining control over the original cacao-producing regions. This ambition spurred the first organized movement of cultivation outside of the Mesoamerican heartland in the 16th and 17th centuries. The initial seeds, primarily the fine-flavored Criollo variety, were transplanted from areas like Venezuela to nearby Caribbean islands.
The Spanish introduced Criollo to Trinidad as early as 1525, though commercial production took decades to establish. Cultivation also spread to Hispaniola and Jamaica, where the tropical climate was highly suitable. These early colonial efforts were challenged by fluctuating prices, labor shortages, and environmental issues. A devastating crop failure in Trinidad around the 1720s, referred to as the “blast,” destroyed the susceptible Criollo stock. This catastrophe led to the development of the Trinitario hybrid, a cross between the surviving Criollo and the more robust Forastero variety introduced from Venezuela.
The Asian Expansion
Cacao moved across the Pacific Ocean via the Spanish trading network, bypassing the Atlantic entirely. This trans-Pacific transfer was facilitated by the Manila Galleon trade route, which linked Acapulco in New Spain (Mexico) with Manila in the Philippines. Spanish friars and colonists introduced the first cacao plants, likely the prized Criollo variety, to the Philippines around the mid-17th century.
The successful establishment of the tree in the Philippines made it the first country in Asia to cultivate cacao, serving as a gateway for regional spread. Cultivation material moved westward into Southeast Asia, particularly the Indonesian archipelago. The Dutch East India Company established large plantations on islands like Java and Sumatra starting in the late 18th century. These Dutch efforts utilized the hardier Forastero genetics, which were better suited for large-scale, intensive cultivation.
Establishment of West African Dominance
The final, and most commercially significant, phase of cacao’s global spread began in the mid-19th century with its introduction to the Gulf of Guinea. The initial source material was the Forastero species, specifically the Amelonado type, first transplanted from Brazil to the islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the 1820s. From these Portuguese colonies, the seeds were carried to the island of Fernando Po (now Bioko in Equatorial Guinea) around 1840.
The decisive movement to the West African mainland is largely attributed to local initiative. A Ghanaian blacksmith named Tetteh Quarshie, who had worked on the plantations of Fernando Po, returned to the Gold Coast (modern Ghana) in 1879, bringing Amelonado pods. He successfully planted these seeds, and the resulting seedlings were widely distributed to local farmers. This smallholder-led approach, coupled with a highly suitable climate and fertile forest land, led to explosive growth.
Ghana rapidly became the world’s largest producer of cacao by 1911, a title it held for decades. Neighboring Ivory Coast (Côte d’Ivoire) followed a similar path, with French colonial administrations introducing seeds from Fernando Po in the late 19th century. The robust, high-yielding characteristics of the Amelonado cacao proved ideal for the mass production required by European chocolate makers. This rapid adoption in West Africa fundamentally shifted the global supply chain, establishing the region’s lasting position as the primary source for the world’s chocolate.