White phosphorus is a distinct form, or allotrope, of the chemical element phosphorus. It typically appears as a translucent, waxy solid, which can range in color from white to yellow. This substance holds a special place in the history of chemistry because it was the first element discovered since antiquity. Its unique properties and the intriguing circumstances of its isolation marked a significant moment in the transition from alchemy to modern chemistry.
The Initial Discovery
The discovery of white phosphorus occurred in 1669, attributed to Hennig Brand, a German alchemist residing in Hamburg. Brand was deeply involved in the alchemical pursuit of the “philosopher’s stone,” a legendary substance believed to transmute base metals into gold. His unconventional approach led him to believe that human urine might hold the key to this elusive transformation.
Brand’s experimental process involved boiling down large quantities of urine into a thick, syrupy residue. He then subjected this concentrated material to intense heat in his laboratory. Through this method, he accidentally isolated a glowing substance.
The substance he collected was a white, waxy material that glowed in the dark and spontaneously ignited upon contact with air. Brand named his discovery “phosphorus,” derived from the Greek word “phosphoros,” meaning “light-bearer” or “bringer of light.” Initially, Brand kept his method a secret, but the knowledge of this luminous element eventually spread, with Robert Boyle independently rediscovering it in 1680.
First Practical Uses
Following its discovery, white phosphorus found initial applications. Its ability to glow in the dark made it a popular item for demonstrations by apothecaries, natural philosophers, and showmen. These early displays contributed to its mystique.
One of the earliest and most widespread practical uses for white phosphorus was in the development of matches. In 1830, Charles Sauria, a French chemist, incorporated white phosphorus into match formulations. These early white phosphorus matches ignited easily and quickly gained popularity. However, their inherent toxicity posed significant health risks to both manufacturers and users.
The manufacturing process of white phosphorus matches led to a condition among workers known as “phossy jaw,” a decay of the jawbone. Due to these health hazards, the use of white phosphorus in matches was eventually banned in many industrialized nations in the early 1900s. Additionally, white phosphorus was historically employed as a rodenticide and in the production of fireworks. Its incendiary properties also saw early application in the 19th century with “Fenian fire,” a mixture of white phosphorus and carbon disulfide used for arson.