Ecology, which is the scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of living organisms, is a relatively young discipline with deep historical roots. The question of who started the field is not answered by a single name, but by tracing the evolution of an idea into a structured science. Its origin involves separating this systemic view of nature from broader natural history and formally defining its concepts. The history of this science progressed from describing interconnectedness to formal naming and establishing core principles.
What is Ecology?
Ecology is a branch of biology that focuses on the complex relationships between organisms and their surroundings, including interactions with other life forms and the physical environment. This field goes beyond simple description by analyzing the causes behind the distribution, abundance, and biomass of living things. Unlike general natural history, which primarily catalogs and describes nature, ecology seeks to understand the processes and mechanisms that govern the natural world. Ecology operates at various levels of organization, from the individual organism to populations, communities, ecosystems, and the entire biosphere.
Ernst Haeckel and Coining the Term
The German zoologist Ernst Haeckel is most frequently credited with formally defining and naming the discipline. In 1866, Haeckel introduced the term Ökologie in his work, Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. He derived the name from the Greek words oikos, meaning “house” or “dwelling,” and logos, meaning “the study of.” Haeckel’s definition was the study of the “relation of the animal both to its organic as well as its inorganic environment.”
Haeckel’s work was influenced by Charles Darwin’s theories, particularly natural selection. He saw ecology as the science that would explore the economic relationships of organisms that governed their “struggle for existence.” By assigning a specific name and definition, Haeckel helped differentiate this focus on environmental relationships from broader zoology and general biology.
Early Systemic Thinkers Who Laid the Groundwork
While Haeckel provided the name, the concept of nature as an interconnected system existed long before the term “ecology.” Alexander von Humboldt, a Prussian naturalist and explorer, pioneered a holistic approach to understanding nature in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Through extensive travels in the Americas, he employed meticulous, quantitative measurement to study the distribution of plants and animals.
Humboldt’s work established the field of biogeography, focusing on the geographic distribution of species. He illustrated the altitudinal zonation of vegetation on Mount Chimborazo, showing how environmental factors correlate with specific plant communities. This systemic view heavily influenced Haeckel and laid the observational foundation for ecology. The Danish botanist Eugenius Warming also focused on plant-environment relationships. In his 1895 book, Plantesamfund (Oecology of Plants), Warming founded the sub-discipline of plant ecology by formalizing the concept of the “plant community,” grouping species based on their shared adaptations.
The Formalization of Ecology
Following Haeckel’s naming and the foundational work, the discipline required a unifying concept to transition into a structured, modern science. This arrived with the introduction of the term “ecosystem,” which provided a clear, functional unit of study. The British botanist Arthur Tansley introduced and fully defined the concept of the ecosystem in 1935.
Tansley described the ecosystem as the entire system, including both the complex of living organisms and the physical factors—the non-living environment—interacting as a single unit. He intended this concept to focus attention on the constant interchange of materials between the organic and inorganic parts of nature. This idea was later expanded and popularized by ecologists like Eugene Odum, who emphasized the study of energy flow and material cycling within these systems. The ecosystem concept allowed for the development of distinct sub-disciplines, such as population ecology and community ecology. The formalization through the ecosystem concept moved ecology from a primarily descriptive science into one capable of quantitative analysis and modeling.