The question of which organism holds the record for the longest lifespan does not have a single, simple answer, as the term “lifespan” changes dramatically depending on the biological domain. Defining lifespan as the maximum verified chronological age observed, records are held across the animal, plant, and microbial kingdoms. The oldest living things can be individual organisms, genetically identical clonal colonies, or creatures that have evolved mechanisms to reverse the aging process entirely. Exploring these extreme longevities reveals how nature constantly redefines the concept of a biological limit on time.
Record Holders in the Animal Kingdom
Among individual animals, the record for chronological age is dominated by species inhabiting deep, cold, and stable marine environments, where slow metabolism aids survival. The ocean quahog (Arctica islandica), a species of clam, holds the verified record for the longest-lived non-colonial animal. One specimen, nicknamed “Ming,” was determined to be 507 years old by counting the annual growth bands on its shell.
The Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus) holds the title for the longest-lived vertebrate, with ages estimated between 272 and over 500 years. Scientists determine the age using radiocarbon dating of proteins preserved within the nucleus of their eye lenses. This longevity is linked to the shark’s slow growth rate and the frigid temperatures of its habitat.
Other long-lived vertebrates include the Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus), the oldest mammal, confirmed to live over 211 years. The maximum chronological age in the Animalia kingdom belongs to colonial organisms like deep-sea glass sponges. These creatures are estimated to live for over 10,000 years, based on their extremely slow growth rates. Black corals (Antipatharia) also exhibit longevity, with some specimens estimated to be over 4,000 years old.
Longevity Records in Plants and Clonal Colonies
In the plant kingdom, extreme age measurement requires distinguishing between an individual organism and a genetically unified clonal colony. The longest-lived non-clonal organism is the Great Basin Bristlecone Pine (Pinus longaeva), which grows in the arid, high-altitude mountains of the Western United States. The oldest verified living specimen, known as Methuselah, is approximately 4,857 years old.
The age of these trees is determined through dendrochronology, the science of dating by counting and analyzing annual growth rings. By cross-dating living trees with preserved wood, scientists have constructed a continuous chronology extending the species’ lineage back more than 9,000 years. The pine’s longevity is attributed to its wood’s high resin content and dense structure, which resists disease and insect infestation.
The true record for biological duration is held by clonal colonies, which are genetically uniform organisms composed of many separate stems. The Pando colony of Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides) in Utah is a single organism composed of roughly 47,000 identical trunks connected by a massive root system. While individual trunks typically live for about 130 years, the entire root system is estimated to be between 34,000 and 80,000 years old. Another contender is the seagrass Posidonia oceanica, which forms vast clonal meadows in the Mediterranean Sea, with some estimates reaching over 200,000 years.
Organisms That Defy Typical Aging
A small number of organisms have evolved a biological mechanism known as biological immortality. This state describes a lack of functional decline with age, or senescence, though these organisms can still die from external factors like predation or injury. These creatures challenge the understanding that all multicellular life must eventually experience age-related degradation.
The most famous example is the “immortal jellyfish,” Turritopsis dohrnii, a species that can revert its life cycle after reaching sexual maturity. When faced with stress or injury, the adult medusa transforms back into its juvenile polyp stage, resetting its developmental clock. This transformation occurs through transdifferentiation, where mature cells are reprogrammed into unspecialized stem cells that form the new polyp.
Another organism that resists aging is the hydra, a small freshwater cnidarian that appears to regenerate indefinitely. Hydra continuously renew their bodies with new cells, maintaining a constant state of cellular repair. They do not show an increased mortality rate as they age in a protected setting, modeling sustained tissue maintenance without accumulating age-related damage.
Biological Factors Driving Extreme Lifespans
Extreme lifespans are rooted in biological and environmental adaptations that promote cellular and genomic stability. A major factor observed across many long-lived species, particularly those in the deep ocean, is an extremely slow metabolic rate. In cold environments, biochemical reactions proceed slowly, which significantly lowers the production of reactive oxygen species and metabolic byproducts that cause cellular damage. This reduction in damage accumulation allows organisms like the Greenland shark to extend their lives by centuries.
Long-lived species also exhibit robust mechanisms for repairing damage. Studies comparing the genomes of long-lived mammals, like the naked mole rat and humans, to shorter-lived ones reveal a higher expression of DNA repair genes. These species possess potent proteins, such as those regulated by the SIRT6 gene, which are efficient at correcting DNA double-strand breaks, a major source of aging.
Superior cellular maintenance also involves the enzyme telomerase, which prevents the shortening of telomeres at the ends of chromosomes. High telomerase activity is found in the Bristlecone Pine, allowing its cells to maintain genetic material over millennia. The combination of a low-damage environment and superior genetic repair systems correlates directly with maximum chronological longevity across all kingdoms of life.