Russia is the largest country in the world, spanning over 17 million square kilometers and crossing eleven time zones. This immense geographical scale and northern position create extreme climatic diversity. While the nation contains pockets of more temperate or arid conditions, one specific climate type defines the majority of its landmass and population distribution, making it the dominant factor in Russia’s climate profile.
The Subarctic Boreal Forest Climate
The climate type that covers the greatest area of the Russian Federation is the Subarctic, often associated with the taiga or boreal forest biome. This zone extends across Siberia and the Russian Far East, characterized by extreme seasonality. Winters are exceptionally long and cold, typically lasting five to seven months with temperatures consistently below freezing.
Summers are short and mild, offering a brief window of warmth with average monthly temperatures reaching 10°C or higher for only one to three months. This short growing season limits agriculture and heavily influences the natural vegetation. The most severe form of this climate, found in inner Northeast Siberia, is classified as an extremely cold subarctic type (Dfd), where the average temperature of the coldest month can drop below -38°C.
Precipitation in this dominant zone is generally low, often ranging from 250 to 500 millimeters annually. Despite the low annual total, cold temperatures reduce evaporation, leaving the ground saturated in many areas. A significant portion of the country’s territory is defined by these conditions of long, dark, and severely cold winters.
Geographical Drivers of Russia’s Climate
The primary mechanism creating Russia’s extreme climate is its massive landlocked nature, known as continentality. The interior is thousands of kilometers from the moderating influence of major oceans, leading to dramatic annual temperature swings. Land heats up and cools down much faster than water, resulting in hot, brief summers and brutally cold winters with low humidity.
A second major driver is Russia’s high latitude, with more than half of the federation lying north of the 60°N parallel. This northern position means solar radiation hits the surface at a low angle, significantly reducing the energy received and contributing to low overall temperatures. The northern regions are open to frigid air masses sweeping down from the Arctic Ocean.
The country’s topography also shapes its climate extremes. High mountain ranges along the southern and eastern borders, such as the Caucasus and Eastern Siberian ranges, act as barriers. These mountains effectively block the inflow of warm, moist air masses from the Indian and Pacific Oceans, enhancing the cold, dry conditions that prevail across the vast Siberian plains.
Major Supporting Climate Zones
While the Subarctic is the largest, other climate zones sustain the majority of Russia’s population and agricultural output. Along the far northern coast and the Arctic islands lies the Tundra climate zone. This area is characterized by permanently frozen subsoil and treeless terrain, with the warmest month averaging less than 10°C.
Moving west, European Russia west of the Ural Mountains is dominated by a Humid Continental climate. This densely populated and agriculturally viable zone experiences more moderate conditions, featuring warm to hot summers and cold, snowy winters. This allows for a longer growing season than in the Subarctic, as the influence of the Atlantic Ocean slightly tempers the continental extremes.
In the south, stretching across the Lower Volga River basin and parts of southern Siberia, the climate transitions into Arid and Semi-Arid conditions. These steppe regions (BSk) are characterized by hot, dry summers and cold winters, receiving insufficient precipitation for forest growth. This climate supports the grassland plains and contrasts with the forested zones.
Environmental Impact of Extreme Cold
A defining characteristic of Russia’s climate zones, particularly the Subarctic and Tundra, is the widespread presence of permafrost. This ground remains at or below 0°C for at least two consecutive years and underlies approximately 65% of the Russian territory. Permafrost fundamentally constrains human development across the eastern regions, contributing to the country’s low population density in Siberia.
The stability of infrastructure, including buildings, pipelines, and roads, depends on the ground remaining frozen. Thawing permafrost due to a warming climate causes ground subsidence and reduces the soil’s bearing capacity. This instability results in significant damage to the built environment, posing an economic challenge, especially for resource extraction industries located in the Arctic.
The seasonal cycles of cold also create logistical challenges. Major rivers, which serve as transportation arteries, freeze over completely for many months of the year. Subsequent spring thaws lead to substantial ice-jam flooding, complicating infrastructure maintenance and development in the affected regions.