Before European settlement and agriculture, the Midwest presented diverse ecosystems. This expanse, stretching from eastern deciduous forests to the western Great Plains, was not uniform but a dynamic interplay of prairies, woodlands, and waterways. Its pre-farming appearance was shaped by climate, geology, and Indigenous interactions.
Vast Prairies and Grasslands
The tallgrass prairie dominated much of the pre-settlement Midwest, an expansive ecosystem characterized by towering grasses and rich biodiversity. Species like big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) and indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans) reached heights of 6 to 8 feet or more, creating a “sea of grass” that swayed in the wind. These grasses had deep root systems, often extending 6 to 15 feet underground, allowing them to access deep water sources and withstand droughts. This extensive root network also contributed to the formation of the region’s famously fertile black soils.
The prairie was not solely grass but interspersed with diverse wildflowers (forbs), adding color throughout the growing season. Animals like American bison, elk, and deer grazed these open lands, while prairie dogs created vast underground colonies. Bird species like the greater prairie chicken and sparrows thrived in this habitat. Natural disturbances, especially fire and drought, were important to maintaining these grasslands, preventing woody plants from encroaching and promoting the growth of native grasses.
Dense Forests and Woodlands
While prairies dominated the central and western parts of the Midwest, dense forests extended into the eastern and northern portions. These were eastern deciduous forests, characterized by trees that shed their leaves seasonally. Common trees included oaks (e.g., white oak, red oak), hickories, maples (e.g., sugar maple), and American beech. These forests exhibited a layered structure, with a tall canopy, a midstory of smaller trees like dogwoods and sassafras, and a forest floor rich with understory plants, mosses, and ferns.
These forests supported different animal life than the prairies. White-tailed deer, black bears, and timber wolves roamed these forested areas. Bird species, including wild turkeys and songbirds, found shelter and food within the forest canopy and understory. Transition zones between forests and prairies, known as savannas or oak openings, featured scattered, fire-tolerant oak trees, creating a park-like landscape.
Dynamic Waterways and Wetlands
Waterways and wetlands crisscrossed the pre-agricultural Midwest, shaping the landscape and supporting biodiversity. Major rivers like the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio served as vital arteries. These rivers and their tributaries created vast floodplains and riparian corridors. The region also contained lakes, including the Great Lakes and smaller glacial lakes.
Wetlands, including marshes, swamps, and ephemeral ponds, historically covered large areas of the Midwest. Prior to drainage, much of the “Corn Belt” in states like Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio contained extensive seasonal wetlands. These aquatic environments provided habitats for diverse fish, freshwater mussels, and waterfowl and migratory birds. Waterways also acted as natural corridors, facilitating animal movement and plant seed dispersal.
Indigenous Stewardship of the Land
The pre-farming Midwest was a landscape actively shaped by Indigenous peoples for thousands of years, not an untouched wilderness. Their land management practices maintained the ecological balance and diversity. Controlled burns were a significant practice, particularly in prairie and savanna environments. These intentional fires helped prevent the encroachment of woody vegetation, stimulated the growth of grasses and wildflowers, and created open conditions favorable for grazing animals like bison and deer.
Indigenous communities engaged in selective plant harvesting and sustainable hunting. They hunted game, including bison, elk, deer, and smaller mammals, using methods like communal bison hunts and spearfishing. These activities, coupled with their understanding of land cycles, influenced the distribution and abundance of plant and animal species. This human interaction created a dynamic, managed landscape that provided resources and fostered ecological health, distinct from the large-scale agriculture that would later transform the region.