The chrysanthemum, often simply called a mum, is a perennial herbaceous plant highly prized for its diverse forms and vibrant late-season blooms. It was first cultivated in China as far back as the 15th century BCE. The flower’s original Greek name combines the words chrysos and anthemon, literally meaning “gold flower,” reflecting the initial color of the ancestral species. This enduring popularity has driven an extensive horticultural effort to expand the flower’s natural palette.
The Broad Spectrum of Chrysanthemum Colors
Chrysanthemums offer a remarkable range of hues, making them exceptionally versatile for gardens and floral arrangements. The available colors span from crisp whites and creamy ivories to vibrant yellows and deep golds. In the warmer spectrum, options include fiery oranges, rich bronzes, true reds, and sophisticated burgundies.
The cooler tones are represented by various shades of pink, soft lavender, and deep purple. Breeders have developed cultivars that feature green petals, and many modern hybrids also display bi-colored or blended petals. Despite this diversity, the flower does not naturally produce a true, deep blue or black color. Black chrysanthemums are only achieved by artificially dyeing white blooms, while a true blue hue requires modern genetic manipulation.
How Breeders Create Such Diverse Hues
The vast color range in chrysanthemums is a result of manipulating two primary types of plant pigments: carotenoids and anthocyanins. Carotenoids are responsible for the yellow, orange, and bright red shades, while anthocyanins produce the colors in the pink, red, and purple spectrum. White flowers occur when the genetic pathways for both pigment groups are turned off or absent.
Horticulturists employ traditional crossbreeding, which is effective because the chrysanthemum is highly heterozygous. This means crossing two different parents results in a wide variety of new traits in the offspring. For example, crossing a yellow mum with a pink mum can produce orange or red offspring that contain both carotenoids and anthocyanins.
Newer methods include mutation breeding, where tools like gamma radiation are used to induce changes in a single gene, generating novel colors. Scientists have also utilized genetic engineering to introduce genes that create blue-violet flowers, overcoming the plant’s natural inability to produce this shade.
Symbolism and Meaning of Specific Colors
The color of a chrysanthemum often dictates its cultural use and the message it conveys to the recipient. Red chrysanthemums symbolize deep love, passion, and long-lasting devotion, making them a popular alternative to roses for romantic gifts. Conversely, the meaning of white mums is complex, symbolizing purity, loyalty, and innocence in many Western traditions.
However, in several European countries and parts of East Asia, white chrysanthemums are strongly associated with mourning, grief, and honoring the deceased. Yellow chrysanthemums generally represent joy, optimism, and warm friendship in countries like the United States and Japan. This cheerful meaning contrasts with some older European traditions where the yellow flower symbolized sorrow or rejected affection.
Pink and purple shades are often associated with affection, devotion, and grace. They are also frequently used to express wishes for longevity or a noble character.