The chrysanthemum, often called a mum, is a highly cultivated flowering plant belonging to the Chrysanthemum genus. Extensive breeding over centuries has resulted in a remarkable diversity of forms and hues. Modern horticulture has produced an expansive spectrum of shades, meaning there is no single answer to the question of its color.
The Core Color Palette
Cultivated chrysanthemums offer a wide array of colors. The most commonly available colors include white, yellow, pink, and deep red. These primary hues are frequently joined by warm autumnal tones like bronze, orange, and deep burgundy, which are popular in the fall season. Less common are shades of lavender and purple, along with unique green-flowered cultivars containing chlorophyll in their ray petals. True blue and true black pigments are largely absent in naturally occurring chrysanthemums, though blue has been achieved through advanced genetic engineering techniques.
Pigments and Color Creation
The diversity of chrysanthemum color is determined by the presence and concentration of two primary classes of pigments. Carotenoids are fat-soluble pigments that accumulate in the flower’s plastids, primarily generating colors in the yellow, orange, and certain red portions of the spectrum. Specific carotenoids like lutein and zeaxanthin contribute to the bright yellows and oranges. Anthocyanins, a type of flavonoid, are water-soluble pigments stored in the cell vacuoles, producing vibrant pinks, reds, and purplish-reds. These colors, often cyanidin-based, shift in intensity depending on their concentration within the petal cells. White flowers result when the genes responsible for synthesizing both carotenoids and anthocyanins are inactive, creating a perceived absence of color.
Color Shifts and Environmental Factors
A chrysanthemum’s color is not static and can change or deepen due to external influences throughout the bloom cycle. Temperature is one of the most powerful environmental factors affecting color expression, particularly for anthocyanin pigments. Cooler temperatures during bud development often intensify reds, purples, and oranges by promoting greater pigment accumulation. Conversely, high temperatures can lead to lighter or washed-out hues, as heat inhibits the necessary chemical reactions for pigment synthesis. Light intensity also plays a role; strong sunlight or increased UV exposure stimulates anthocyanin production, resulting in more saturated colors. As the flower matures, pigments may naturally degrade or change, causing some varieties to fade or develop a bronzed appearance late in the season.
Cultural Significance of Hues
The color of a chrysanthemum carries distinct, often contradictory, symbolic meanings across different global cultures. In Western traditions, a red chrysanthemum is a straightforward expression of deep love and passion, similar to a red rose. White chrysanthemums carry complex symbolism, representing honesty, purity, and loyalty in many contexts. In several European countries, particularly France, Belgium, and Italy, white chrysanthemums are used almost exclusively as memorial flowers, symbolizing grief and remembrance. Yellow chrysanthemums also have mixed interpretations; they signify joy, optimism, and friendship in the United States, but have historically been associated with neglected love or sorrow in some older European traditions.