Ocean resources are broadly defined as any material, substance, or non-material asset derived from the ocean or utilized because of the ocean’s presence. Covering over 70% of the planet’s surface, the world’s oceans are a vast reservoir of both living and non-living resources that support global economic activity. The “blue economy,” which encompasses all ocean-based industries, is estimated to be worth trillions of dollars annually, driving international commerce and providing livelihoods for billions of people worldwide. The sheer scale of the ocean’s contribution makes its sustainable management a priority for food security, energy supply, and environmental stability.
Biological Resources
Living marine resources represent a fundamental source of global nutrition and a frontier for scientific discovery. Fisheries and aquaculture, which includes finfish, shellfish, and seaweed, provide nearly 17% of the animal protein consumed globally. Aquaculture, the farming of aquatic organisms, is the fastest-growing food production sector, helping meet the increasing demand for seafood.
Beyond food, bioprospecting involves searching marine organisms for novel compounds, enzymes, and genes with commercial applications. Marine invertebrates, such as sponges and tunicates, have evolved unique chemical defense mechanisms that yield compounds with potent pharmacological activities. This research has led to the development of approved drugs, including the potent painkiller ziconotide, derived from the venom of the cone snail Conus magus.
Other successful marine-derived pharmaceuticals include trabectedin, an anti-cancer agent sourced from the tunicate Ecteinascidia turbinata. Furthermore, microbial life in the ocean is a source of new antibiotics, such as Anthracimycin. This biochemical diversity is also leveraged in cosmetics, nutritional supplements, and industrial processes, highlighting the expansive non-food utility of ocean life.
Energy Sources
The ocean provides a significant portion of the world’s conventional energy supply through the extraction of fossil fuels. Offshore deposits account for approximately 30% of global oil production and nearly 50% of global natural gas production. These hydrocarbons, including petroleum and natural gas, are typically found in sedimentary basins beneath the continental shelves and slopes.
Exploration also targets unconventional deposits, such as methane hydrates, which are crystalline solids made of water molecules encasing methane gas. These hydrates are thought to contain immense energy, possibly twice the energy content of all conventional global petroleum and coal reserves combined. While extraction is technologically challenging, these marine deposits represent a vast future energy reserve.
Renewable energy is also harvested from the ocean environment in several forms.
Renewable Marine Energy
- Offshore wind farms utilize stronger, more consistent winds over the water to generate electricity.
- Marine hydrokinetic energy captures the kinetic power of water movement through devices like tidal stream turbines, harnessing the predictable ebb and flow of tides.
- Wave energy converters capture the up-and-down motion of surface waves to produce power.
- Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) uses the temperature difference between warm surface water and cold deep water to run a heat engine.
OTEC requires a thermal gradient of at least 20° Celsius to function effectively, making it suitable for tropical waters. These diverse energy sources offer the potential for clean, reliable power generation near major coastal population centers.
Mineral and Physical Assets
The ocean floor holds vast quantities of non-fuel materials, categorized as mineral and physical assets. Nearshore, the most heavily exploited physical resources are sand and gravel, which are dredged primarily for coastal construction, land reclamation projects, and beach nourishment. The extraction of these finite materials can significantly impact coastal ecosystems and sediment transport.
In deeper waters, significant deposits of solid minerals exist, presenting a potential source for metals crucial to modern technology. Deep-sea minerals are classified into three main types based on their formation and location:
- Polymetallic nodules are potato-sized concretions found on the abyssal plains, containing high concentrations of manganese, nickel, copper, and cobalt.
- Polymetallic sulfides form around active or extinct hydrothermal vents, which are rich in copper, zinc, gold, and silver.
- Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts precipitate onto the flanks of underwater mountains and seamounts, containing metals like cobalt, nickel, and platinum.
The Clarion-Clipperton Zone in the Pacific Ocean is a major focus area, holding an estimated 21 billion metric tons of polymetallic nodules.
Ocean Services
Beyond the direct extraction of materials, the ocean provides numerous non-extractive services that support global human activity and planetary health. The most visible service is global transportation, as the ocean’s surface serves as the primary route for international trade. Approximately 80% to 90% of global trade by volume is transported by sea, making this network the backbone of the global supply chain, connecting distant economies.
Coastal regions also benefit from extensive tourism and recreation, generating significant revenue for local economies. Activities such as boating, diving, and beach visits rely on the health and accessibility of marine and coastal environments.
A profound service is the ocean’s role as a carbon sink and climate regulator. The ocean absorbs about one-third of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere. This carbon sequestration is driven by the solubility pump, where carbon dissolves in the water, and the biological pump, where microscopic phytoplankton absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. Coastal ecosystems like mangroves and seagrass meadows are highly effective at storing carbon in their sediments, a process known as “blue carbon.”