The world of Ancient Greece, spanning the Archaic through the Hellenistic periods, was defined by the rugged Mediterranean environment. Fauna held practical, economic, and profound symbolic significance, shaping which species could be domesticated and which remained wild. From essential livestock to powerful predators and abundant marine resources, animals were interwoven into Greek society and culture, influencing agricultural practices, trade, religious rituals, and foundational myths.
Animals Essential for Daily Life and Labor
The mountainous terrain heavily influenced the types of livestock raised. Sheep and goats were the most numerous domesticated animals, favored over cattle because they were better suited to the sparse pastureland and had less demanding dietary needs. These ruminants provided meat, milk (primarily for cheese), and wool or hair for textiles. Goats were particularly valuable for their milk, as cow’s milk was rarely drunk in antiquity.
Pigs were also a common feature of the ancient Greek diet, though pig-rearing was less widespread than sheep or goat husbandry. Oxen were the primary draft animals for plowing fields, and their high value made them a measure of wealth and a component of religious sacrifice. Donkeys and mules were essential pack animals for overland transportation. Horses, conversely, were considered a luxury animal associated primarily with the aristocracy and warfare, as their upkeep was expensive.
Terrestrial Wildlife of the Greek Landscape
The terrestrial fauna of Ancient Greece included diverse predators and game animals, though human activity gradually altered the ecosystem. Large carnivores like bears and wolves were present throughout the mainland, posing a constant threat to livestock. Bears were mentioned in locations as far south as Mount Parnitha and Mount Taygetos, while wolves were associated with the god Apollo.
The Asiatic Lion was once common in northern Greece, but its population declined significantly, likely becoming extinct by 100 BC. Herodotus mentioned lions attacking Xerxes’ army in Macedonia around 480 BC, illustrating their presence at the time. Common game animals included deer and wild boar, hunted for food and as a demonstration of elite skill. The environment was also home to reptiles and venomous snakes, which were a natural hazard.
Marine Life and Coastal Resources
Given the extensive coastline, the sea was an indispensable source of food and economic activity. A wide variety of fish species were integral to the diet, including bluefin tuna, mackerel, anchovies, and sardines; Aristotle described over 100 species of marine fish. Fishing techniques included bronze hooks, lines, nets, and tridents, with large-scale operations using lookouts to spot migrating schools. The trade in salted fish, known as tarichē, flourished during the Classical period, providing an affordable protein source for the average Athenian citizen.
Beyond fish, cephalopods like octopus and squid, along with shellfish such as oysters, mussels, and sea urchins, were commonly consumed. Marine mammals also interacted with the Greeks, most notably dolphins, which were occasionally hunted for their fat. Greek fishermen engaged in whaling in the southern Peloponnese, targeting sperm and killer whales. Coastal cities like Cyzicus built wealth on their plentiful catches, often featuring fish like the tuna on their coinage.
Animals in Myth, Religion, and Symbolism
Animals transcended their utilitarian roles, becoming powerful religious symbols, omens, and attributes of the gods. The Owl, with its nocturnal habits and keen eyesight, was closely associated with the goddess Athena, symbolizing wisdom and vigilance, and was frequently depicted alongside her. The Bull was a potent symbol of power and sacrifice, central to the Minotaur myth and frequently used in hecatombs, large-scale offerings to major deities like Zeus.
Snakes held complex meanings, often representing healing, transformation, and regeneration, making them sacred to Asclepius, the god of medicine. The Horse symbolized status, wealth, and warfare, and was sacred to Poseidon, who was sometimes credited with its creation. Lions, even after their extinction in Greece, remained a symbol of strength and sovereignty, most famously linked to the hero Heracles, who was often depicted wearing the skin of the Nemean Lion. Specific animals were also used to foretell omens, with the practice of ornithomancy involving the interpretation of the movements of birds. Sacrificial animals, primarily livestock, were seen as mediators between the human and divine worlds, their slaughter and consumption being a foundational act of religious communion.