The ancient Maya civilization, flourishing across the diverse landscapes of Mesoamerica, maintained a profound relationship with local fauna. The tropical environment provided animals integrated into nearly every aspect of their society. These creatures served as sources of subsistence, provided raw materials, and held deep religious and symbolic meaning. The lives of the Maya, from farmer to ruler, were connected to the surrounding wildlife.
Domesticated and Managed Species
The Maya managed several species, though they had few truly domesticated animals compared to Old World civilizations. The dog was the only fully domesticated mammal brought into the Americas by early migrants. Dogs served primarily as hunting companions, but some varieties were also raised on a corn-heavy diet, suggesting they were fattened for ceremonial consumption or food.
The turkey was the most important managed bird, including the indigenous ocellated turkey and the Mexican turkey imported through trade. Turkeys were valued for their meat, feathers used for adornment, and as sacrificial offerings.
Stingless bees, primarily Melipona beecheii (Xunan Kab or “royal lady”), were carefully managed for their products. These bees were kept in hollowed logs called jobón for their unique honey and wax. The honey was used as a sweetener, medicine, and for making a fermented drink, while the wax was important for trade and ritual offerings.
Essential Wild Game and Hunting
Wild game was the primary source of protein, making hunting a sophisticated and ritually governed activity. White-tailed and brocket deer were the most frequently hunted mammals, providing meat, hides, and bone for implements. Deer were often taken during the dry season using group drives, sometimes employing hunting dogs to corral the animals toward waiting hunters.
Other large terrestrial game, such as peccaries and tapirs, were also hunted for their substantial meat yield. Hunters employed a variety of tools, including spears propelled by an atlatl (spear-thrower), blowguns, and various traps. Hunting was often guided by a conservation ideology that limited the kill to only what was needed for the community.
Coastal and riverine communities relied heavily on aquatic resources, including fish and shellfish. Larger aquatic animals like manatees were hunted for meat and thick hides used for durable goods. Sea turtles provided meat, and their shells were used to make musical instruments or rattles for ritual use.
Animals in Maya Cosmology and Symbolism
Many animals that were not primary food sources held immense religious and political significance as symbols of cosmic forces.
The Jaguar
The jaguar (Balam) was the most powerful symbol, associated with rulers, the night, and the underworld realm of Xibalba. Its spotted coat represented the stars in the night sky. Elite rulers wore jaguar pelts and took jaguar names to project power and authority.
Reptiles
Serpents, often depicted as the Feathered Serpent deity Kukulcan, symbolized the celestial paths and the union of the sky and the earth. The snake represented rebirth and transformation due to its ability to shed its skin, making it a frequent motif in art and iconography. The crocodile or caiman was a foundational symbol of the earth, often depicted as a creature floating on primordial waters with the world resting on its back.
Birds
Birds were significant in the celestial realm, particularly the Resplendent Quetzal, revered for its long, iridescent green tail feathers. These prized feathers were used exclusively for the elaborate headdresses and clothing of the elite and for ritual objects. Macaw feathers also served as a marker of wealth and status, and quetzal feathers were sometimes used as a form of currency.
Underworld and Creation Symbols
Bats, inhabiting caves considered entrances to the underworld, were associated with darkness, sacrifice, and death. The deity Camazotz, the “death bat,” embodied the ominous forces of the subterranean realm in Maya mythology. Conversely, the turtle symbolized the earth’s surface and was crucial in creation myths, often showing the Maize God emerging from a cracked shell, representing rebirth.
Confirming the Fauna Record
Modern knowledge of the Maya’s relationship with animals is built upon multiple lines of archaeological and historical evidence.
Zooarchaeology
Zooarchaeology provides direct evidence through the study of animal remains, such as bones, teeth, and shells recovered from ancient settlements. Techniques like stable isotope analysis can reveal an animal’s diet, confirming whether a species was wild-hunted or captivity-reared on human-provided maize.
Iconography
Iconography, found in murals, pottery, and sculpted stone monuments, offers extensive insight into the symbolic and ritual importance of animals. These artistic representations depict animals in mythological scenes, in association with deities, and as accoutrements of elite status.
Written Records
The surviving Maya codices, such as the Dresden and Madrid Codices, contain written and drawn records. These documents detail animal figures in calendrical and divinatory contexts.