Freshwater management is a significant global challenge due to growing human populations and shifting consumption patterns. Although water is a renewable resource, the supply of readily available freshwater from rivers, lakes, and aquifers is finite and unevenly distributed. Understanding how this limited resource is allocated among different human activities is paramount for addressing water scarcity and sustainability. Global statistics on water usage provide a clear picture of which sectors place the greatest demand on our freshwater reserves.
The Dominant Sector in Global Water Use
The activity that uses the most water worldwide, by a substantial margin, is agriculture. This sector is responsible for approximately 70% of all global freshwater withdrawals, primarily utilized for irrigation to support crop growth. The need for irrigation is intensified by cultivating water-intensive staple crops like rice, wheat, and cotton, especially in arid or semi-arid climates. In some regions, the share of water withdrawn for agriculture can exceed 90% of the total regional water use.
Raising livestock also contributes substantially to the agricultural water footprint. Water is required for the animals to drink and, more significantly, for growing large quantities of feed crops, such as corn and soy. The production of meat requires vast water resources embedded within the entire supply chain, from field cultivation to processing. Agriculture’s high water demand is the primary driver behind much of the freshwater scarcity seen globally.
Industrial and Municipal Consumption
Following agriculture, the remaining freshwater withdrawals are split between the industrial and municipal sectors. The industrial sector, including energy production, accounts for 19% to 22% of global withdrawals. Municipal or domestic use, covering household consumption and public services, represents the smallest share, typically 8% to 12% of the total.
The largest industrial demand comes from thermoelectric power generation plants that require vast amounts of water for cooling systems. Other uses include manufacturing processes, such as paper and chemical production, and the extraction and processing of natural resources. Although industry withdraws a large volume of water, a substantial portion is often returned to the source, sometimes at a higher temperature or reduced quality.
Municipal use covers water delivered to homes, businesses, and public institutions. This includes drinking, cooking, bathing, sanitation, and watering lawns or public parks. While domestic usage is the most visible, its volume remains relatively small globally compared to food production demands. Demand from this sector is increasing as urbanization and living standards rise.
How Global Water Usage is Measured
Hydrologists and water managers use specific terminology to quantify the volumes of water moving through human systems.
Water Withdrawal vs. Consumption
The most commonly cited figure is water withdrawal, which is the total amount of water taken from a source, such as a river, lake, or aquifer. This measurement reflects the total volume diverted from the natural environment for human purposes.
A distinction is made between withdrawal and water consumption, which is the portion of withdrawn water no longer immediately available for reuse. Water is considered consumed when it is lost through evaporation or transpiration, incorporated into a product, or polluted beyond immediate usability. For instance, a power plant may withdraw a large volume for cooling but return most of it, while an irrigated field consumes a larger percentage through evaporation and plant uptake.
Blue Water vs. Green Water
Water statistics also differentiate between blue water and green water. Blue water refers to the visible freshwater found in surface water bodies and groundwater that is typically managed and withdrawn for human use. Green water is the rainwater stored in the soil that is directly utilized by plants through evapotranspiration, making it relevant for rain-fed agriculture. Most global water use statistics focus on the management and allocation of blue water resources.
The Concept of Embedded Water
Moving beyond direct withdrawals, the concept of embedded water or “virtual water” offers a broader perspective on the total water footprint of human activity. Virtual water is defined as the volume of water used to produce a commodity, product, or service, measured at the location of production. This concept shifts the focus from where water is withdrawn to where it is ultimately consumed, often indirectly.
The virtual water content of goods can be surprisingly high, illustrating the hidden water demands of modern consumption. For example, producing one kilogram of beef requires about 15,400 liters of water, mostly due to the water needed to grow the animal’s feed. Manufacturing a single cotton T-shirt is estimated to require around 2,700 liters of water.
Understanding virtual water is relevant for analyzing global trade patterns, as countries effectively import or export water resources embedded within their goods. A water-scarce nation can conserve domestic supplies by importing water-intensive products, a concept known as “virtual water trade.” This perspective helps policymakers and consumers grasp the full extent of their water footprint.