The Upper Paleolithic, also known as the Late Stone Age, represents a period of transformation in human prehistory. This era witnessed the widespread emergence of anatomically modern humans and the development of behaviors that set the stage for complex societies. It is recognized for the expansion of modern humans across the globe and the flourishing of new forms of expression.
Chronology and Global Presence
The Upper Paleolithic period spanned approximately 50,000 to 10,000 years ago, marking the final subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. This timeframe aligns with a major expansion of modern humans, Homo sapiens, from Africa into various continents. Evidence suggests Homo sapiens expanded northward into Siberia by about 45,000 years ago and reached Europe after approximately 45,000 years ago.
Dispersal also extended across Asia and into Oceania by about 50,000 years ago. The peopling of Australia likely occurred before 60,000 years ago, with human remains at Lake Mungo dating to around 42,000 years ago. Populations from East and Central Asia crossed the Bering land bridge, reaching the Americas by about 15,000 years ago.
This global spread occurred during the latter half of the Last Glacial Period, often referred to as the Ice Age. Much of northern Europe was covered by an ice sheet during the Last Glacial Maximum, from approximately 26,500 to 19,000 years ago, pushing human populations into refugia in southern Europe. During this period, Neanderthal populations, which had persisted in western Europe, gradually disappeared, leading to the sole dominance of Homo sapiens.
Innovations in Tools and Technology
The Upper Paleolithic saw a shift in tool-making, moving beyond the simpler Mousterian tools of the Middle Paleolithic to more specialized and efficient implements. Blade technology emerged as an innovation, allowing for the production of long, thin flakes with parallel sides from a prepared core. This method increased the efficiency of raw material use. These blades served as versatile blanks for creating a wide array of formal tools, including end scrapers for hide processing and burins for engraving.
The development of composite tools further enhanced hunting capabilities and daily life. Spear throwers, also known as atlatls, increased the range and force of spears, making hunting large game more effective. The bow and arrow also emerged, providing greater accuracy and distance for hunting. Beyond stone, tools made from bone, antler, and ivory became prevalent. These organic materials were fashioned into harpoons for fishing, eyed needles for sewing tailored clothing, and awls for leatherworking, demonstrating advanced crafting skills and adaptability to colder environments.
Art, Symbolism, and Cultural Expression
The Upper Paleolithic is known for its diverse forms of symbolic expression. Cave paintings, found in sites like Lascaux, Chauvet, and Altamira, are prominent examples. These artworks depict animals such as bison, horses, mammoths, and deer, created using mineral pigments like ochre and charcoal, as well as engraving into stone surfaces. While animal figures are common, human figures, abstract symbols, and handprints also appear, though less frequently.
Portable art objects represent another aspect of Upper Paleolithic art. These include Venus figurines, which are small sculptures, and carved animal effigies made from ivory, bone, antler, or clay. Personal ornamentation, such as beads and pendants made from shells, was also prevalent. The meanings behind this art are debated, but potential purposes include spiritual or religious significance, possibly related to shamanic practices, fertility, or animal spirits. Art may also have served social functions like storytelling, transmitting knowledge, or establishing group identity.
Societal Organization and Subsistence
Upper Paleolithic people maintained a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Their diet included large game, such as mammoths and bison, and a variety of plant resources. While hunting strategies remained similar to previous periods, butchery activities evolved with the development of range weapons, allowing for more efficient processing of animal resources. Homo sapiens developed tools to extract dietary resources, maintaining a large proportion of plant-based foods in their diet.
Social structures during this period consisted of smaller, nomadic bands that moved seasonally to follow animal migrations, such as reindeer herds. There is also evidence for occasional mass animal killings, which points to the practice of food storage. Increased social complexity is seen with the emergence of organized settlements, including campsites with storage pits. The development of specialized tools and more varied food sources contributed to greater group identification and a division of labor within communities, fostering interdependence and cooperation.