Monsanto, an American agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation, shaped modern farming through its innovations in plant science. Founded in 1901, the company initially produced industrial chemicals and food additives like saccharin and caffeine. Over time, Monsanto shifted its focus, becoming a leading developer of genetically engineered crops and herbicides, influencing global agriculture and sparking widespread discussions about biotechnology’s role in food production.
The Development of Genetically Modified Plants
Genetically modified (GM) plants are created by altering their DNA to introduce new characteristics. This process involves identifying a gene for a desired trait (e.g., insect resistance or herbicide tolerance), copying it from one organism, and then inserting it into the plant’s genome. For example, scientists might find a gene in a soil bacterium like Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that produces a natural insecticide and transfer it to a corn plant.
Once the desired gene is identified and copied, it is prepared for insertion into plant cells, often with added “promoters” and “marker genes” to identify modified cells. One common method for transferring this DNA into plant cells uses the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which naturally transfers DNA into host cells. Another technique involves coating microscopic metal particles with the DNA and bombarding them into plant cells. The modified plant cells are then grown in tissue culture into full plants, which pass the new DNA to their seeds. Monsanto was among the first to genetically modify a plant cell in 1983 and conducted early field trials of GM crops starting in 1987.
Key Products and Their Agricultural Impact
Monsanto’s most widely recognized “plant” products were the Roundup Ready crops, designed to tolerate the herbicide glyphosate. Glyphosate, developed by Monsanto in the 1970s, works by inhibiting the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) enzyme in plants, which is necessary for plant survival. Roundup Ready crops, such as soybeans, corn, and cotton, contain a gene from Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4 that produces a glyphosate-tolerant EPSPS enzyme, allowing the crop to remain unharmed when Roundup is applied.
This system enabled farmers to spray Roundup directly onto fields to control weeds without damaging crops, simplifying weed management. Widespread adoption of Roundup Ready crops began in the mid-1990s, with GM soybeans introduced in 1996. By 2007, glyphosate was the most widely used herbicide in U.S. agriculture, and by 2009, Monsanto’s biotech seeds and licensed traits accounted for approximately 90% of the total global area devoted to GM seeds. This technology allowed for increased use of conservation tillage practices, such as no-till farming, which can reduce soil erosion and lower labor and fuel costs.
Public Concerns and Legal Challenges
Monsanto’s products and practices faced public scrutiny and legal challenges. Concerns arose regarding the environmental impact of increased glyphosate use, including the emergence of glyphosate-resistant weeds, often called “superweeds,” which necessitated higher application rates or additional herbicides. Some studies also suggested that glyphosate could affect soil biology and potentially immobilize essential plant micronutrients. Environmental concerns also extended to potential impacts on farmland biodiversity, with studies indicating reduced weed seeds affecting insects and birds dependent on them.
Health concerns also emerged, particularly regarding glyphosate’s potential link to non-Hodgkin lymphoma. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified glyphosate as “probably carcinogenic to humans,” leading to numerous lawsuits against Monsanto and later, Bayer. Tens of thousands of claims were filed, with some juries awarding damages to plaintiffs who alleged their cancer was caused by Roundup exposure. Beyond health and environmental aspects, Monsanto’s seed patenting practices also generated controversy. The company required farmers to sign technology use agreements prohibiting them from saving and replanting patented seeds for subsequent seasons, leading to lawsuits against farmers accused of patent infringement.
The Bayer Acquisition and Monsanto’s Legacy
In 2018, Bayer AG acquired Monsanto for approximately $63 billion. This created one of the world’s largest suppliers of seeds and crop protection chemicals. Following the acquisition, Bayer discontinued the Monsanto name, with agricultural operations now under the Bayer Crop Science division.
Despite the name change, many of Monsanto’s products, including Roundup and Roundup Ready seeds, continue to be sold under the Bayer umbrella. Bayer also inherited ongoing legal challenges from Monsanto’s legacy, particularly lawsuits concerning glyphosate and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Bayer has committed over $10 billion to resolve a substantial portion of these lawsuits, reflecting the enduring impact of Monsanto’s innovations.