Copper is a naturally occurring element that plays an essential role in the human body. While often searched as “copper molecule,” it rarely exists as a simple molecule in biological systems. Instead, it primarily functions as an ion, specifically in its cuprous (Cu+) or cupric (Cu2+) forms, or as an integrated component of complex proteins and enzymes. These forms enable copper to participate in chemical reactions essential for life and overall health.
Copper’s Essential Functions in the Body
Copper is required for the proper functioning of organs and metabolic pathways. It acts as a cofactor for numerous enzymes, called cuproenzymes, which are integral to metabolic processes. One such cuproenzyme, cytochrome c oxidase (CCO), is involved in cellular energy production within mitochondria, where it helps convert oxygen into water, generating ATP.
Copper also contributes to the formation of strong and flexible connective tissues. The copper-dependent enzyme lysyl oxidase (LOX) is necessary for cross-linking collagen and elastin fibers. This process is important for bone formation and maintaining connective tissue integrity in the heart and blood vessels. Copper-dependent multi-copper oxidases (MCOs), such as ceruloplasmin, also play a role in iron metabolism by oxidizing ferrous iron (Fe2+) to ferric iron (Fe3+), allowing it to bind to transferrin for transport throughout the body.
The immune system also relies on copper for proper function. Copper ions contribute to the activity of copper-dependent enzymes like superoxide dismutase 1 (Cu/Zn-SOD), which protects cells from oxidative damage. Copper also supports nervous system health and brain development.
How We Get Copper and What Influences Absorption
Humans obtain copper primarily through their diet. Common dietary sources include nuts, seeds, whole grains, legumes, seafood, and organ meats like liver. After consumption, copper is absorbed mainly in the small intestine and then transported into the bloodstream.
Once absorbed, copper is carried throughout the body by various proteins, including albumin and ceruloplasmin. Ceruloplasmin is the primary copper carrier in the blood, transporting between 70% and 95% of total serum copper. The body maintains a stable copper supply by balancing absorption and elimination. However, copper absorption can be influenced by other dietary components; for instance, high zinc intake can interfere with its absorption and utilization.
When Copper Levels Are Out of Balance
Maintaining appropriate copper levels is important, as both deficiency and excess can lead to adverse health effects. The body has homeostatic mechanisms to regulate copper, but imbalances can still occur.
Copper deficiency can arise from an inadequate diet, malabsorption issues, or excessive intake of other minerals like zinc, which compete with copper for absorption. Symptoms include anemia, bone abnormalities, neurological problems like impaired coordination, and compromised immune function. In severe cases, genetic conditions like Menkes disease, a rare inherited disorder, lead to impaired copper absorption and transport, resulting in profound deficiency from birth.
Conversely, copper toxicity can also be detrimental. This can occur due to environmental exposure (e.g., contaminated water, industrial settings) or genetic disorders that impair the body’s ability to excrete excess copper. Symptoms can range from nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain to more severe issues like liver damage, kidney dysfunction, and neurological problems. Wilson’s disease is a prominent genetic disorder where copper accumulates in the liver, brain, and other organs due to a defect in a protein responsible for copper excretion, leading to serious health complications if left untreated.