In 1935, anthropologist Margaret Mead published “Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies,” a significant work that challenged prevailing beliefs about human behavior and gender roles. This research explored whether traits commonly associated with masculinity and femininity are inherent biological characteristics or shaped by cultural influences. Mead’s inquiry suggested that what society considers “male” or “female” behavior might not be universally fixed but rather a product of societal conditioning.
The Groundbreaking Study
Mead’s research involved extensive fieldwork in the Sepik region of Papua New Guinea during the 1930s. She employed an ethnographic approach, immersing herself in the daily lives of the communities through direct observation and interaction. Her primary goal was to understand how distinct cultures might mold personality and define gender roles, providing an alternative to the prevailing biological determinism.
Temperament Across Three Societies
The Arapesh
Among the Arapesh people, Mead observed a consistent temperament across both men and women, characterized by gentleness, cooperativeness, and a nurturing disposition. This society placed a high value on peaceful interactions and mutual support, with aggression being largely absent from their social dynamics. Both genders actively shared responsibilities for childcare and domestic tasks, demonstrating a balanced approach to family life.
The Mundugumor
In stark contrast, the Mundugumor (now known as Biwat) exhibited a temperament that was aggressive, competitive, and individualistic for both men and women. Their social structures encouraged rivalry and hostility, even within families. The Mundugumor were described as assertive and driven, with little emphasis on cooperation or collective well-being.
The Tchambuli
The Tchambuli (now Chambri) presented a striking reversal of what were considered conventional Western gender roles. Mead observed that Tchambuli women were the dominant figures, handling practical matters, economic activities, and showing a more impersonal demeanor. Conversely, Tchambuli men were more focused on artistic expression, engaging in elaborate personal adornment, and participating in social gossip.
Mead’s Central Arguments
From her observations, Mead concluded that human temperament is remarkably adaptable and largely a result of cultural conditioning, rather than being solely dictated by biological sex. She argued that the traits societies label as “masculine” or “feminine” are not inherent but are instead culturally constructed and vary significantly across different groups. Her research demonstrated that behaviors and personalities commonly attributed to one sex could be found in both sexes, or even reversed, depending on the cultural context.
The Study’s Lasting Legacy
Mead’s work had a lasting impact on anthropology, sociology, and gender studies. Her research contributed to the “nature versus nurture” debate, offering evidence for the influence of cultural forces on human development. It also helped solidify the concept of cultural relativism, promoting the understanding that different cultures have valid and unique ways of organizing human experience.