Mining deforestation refers to the clearing of forests to facilitate mineral extraction and the development of associated infrastructure. Demand for minerals drives forest loss across diverse ecosystems, with impacts extending beyond immediate mining sites.
How Mining Leads to Forest Loss
Forest loss from mining occurs through direct and indirect activities. Direct clearing removes forest cover for the physical footprint of mines, including excavations, waste disposal, tailings ponds, and processing facilities. An estimated 3,264 square kilometers of tropical forest were directly lost to industrial mining between 2000 and 2019.
Indirect impacts, often more extensive than direct clearing, result from supporting infrastructure development. This includes access roads, railways, pipelines, and power lines, which open previously remote forested areas. New settlements for workers also emerge, converting more forest for housing, agriculture, and other economic activities. For instance, research in Brazil’s Amazon forest indicated that indirect deforestation from mining was twelve times higher than direct effects between 2005 and 2015.
The scale of mining operations dictates the extent of forest loss. Industrial-scale mining involves large-scale land conversion, creating concentrated areas of deforestation. Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) operations are dispersed and less regulated, yet their cumulative impact on forest loss can be substantial. These smaller operations are prevalent in regions like Ghana, where artisanal and small-scale gold mining accounted for a large portion of forest loss between 2001 and 2020.
Various minerals drive deforestation. Gold and coal have historically been the largest contributors, accounting for over 70% of all mining-related deforestation between 2001 and 2019. Other drivers include bauxite (aluminum ore), iron ore, and copper, with increasing demand for minerals like nickel and cobalt intensifying pressure on forested areas.
Global Areas Affected
Mining deforestation disproportionately impacts tropical rainforests and protected areas. These ecosystems are vulnerable due to high biodiversity and valuable mineral deposits. From 2001 to 2020, approximately 450,000 hectares of tropical primary rainforests were lost due to mining activities, alongside 150,000 hectares within protected areas.
Major geographic hotspots for mining-related deforestation include the Amazon rainforest, Southeast Asia, and parts of Africa. In the Amazon, countries like Brazil and Peru have experienced forest loss. In Brazil, mining activity was responsible for nearly 10% of Amazon deforestation between 2005 and 2015, with indirect impacts extending up to 70 kilometers from mine sites. The Carajas Mineral Province in Brazil, rich in copper, iron ore, and gold, sees annual deforestation of around 6,100 square kilometers due to charcoal production for pig iron plants.
Southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia, faces deforestation driven by mining. Indonesia accounted for 58.2% of direct forest loss from industrial mining across 26 tropical countries between 2000 and 2019, primarily due to coal and nickel extraction. Nickel mining alone has cleared nearly 80,000 hectares of forest in Indonesia, with an additional half-million hectares within concessions at risk.
In Africa, countries like Ghana and the Democratic Republic of Congo are impacted. Ghana lost about 100,000 hectares of forest between 2010 and 2020, largely attributed to illegal gold mining, which often occurs in protected areas like the Atewa Forest. Artisanal mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo triggers deforestation, with forest loss from associated farming and settlement expansion larger than the area directly cleared for mining.
Consequences for Ecosystems and Communities
Mining deforestation impacts ecosystems and communities. Environmentally, forest destruction results in biodiversity loss. Habitat destruction and fragmentation directly displace species, increasing their risk of local extinction. For example, habitat fragmentation from infrastructure development has reduced Indochinese tiger populations in the Greater Mekong region.
Soil degradation is another environmental consequence. The removal of protective forest layers exposes soil to erosion by wind and water, leading to the loss of fertile topsoil and reduced agricultural productivity. This degradation can also reduce the soil’s ability to store water and support diverse microorganisms.
Water pollution is an issue, as mining processes can contaminate rivers, streams, and groundwater. Heavy metals like mercury and cyanide, often used in mineral processing, can leach into water sources. In the Amazon Basin, gold mining has led to increased mercury levels in endangered species such as the Tucuxi river dolphin and contaminated fish consumed by local communities.
Air pollution, primarily dust and emissions from mining, affects air quality in surrounding areas. Mining deforestation contributes to climate change by releasing sequestered carbon into the atmosphere. When forests are cleared, the carbon stored in trees is released as carbon dioxide, diminishing the planet’s capacity to absorb greenhouse gases. Between 2000 and 2019, mining-induced deforestation released approximately 490 million tons of CO2 into the atmosphere globally.
Socially, mining deforestation displaces local and indigenous communities. Forced relocation disrupts traditional ways of life and can lead to the loss of ancestral territories. This displacement causes a loss of livelihoods, as traditional farming, hunting, and gathering grounds are destroyed or contaminated.
Communities face health issues due to pollutant exposure. Contaminated water and air can lead to various illnesses, including skin rashes, headaches, and gastrointestinal problems. Mining activities can ignite social conflicts over land rights and resource access, particularly when operations infringe upon indigenous lands or protected areas.