Kerosene is a flammable liquid hydrocarbon, a middle distillate of the petroleum refining process, used globally for various purposes. It is a mixture of hydrocarbon chains typically containing 9 to 16 carbon atoms per molecule. Common applications include its role as a major component of aviation jet fuel, domestic heating oil, solvents, and fuel for lamps and stoves, especially in areas without electricity. The widespread use of this petroleum product introduces contaminants through combustion and accidental release, presenting multiple pathways for environmental harm. Concerns involve localized air pollution, liquid spill toxicity, and contribution to the global climate crisis.
Atmospheric Emissions from Burning
The combustion of kerosene, particularly in less efficient devices like simple wick lamps or older heaters, releases pollutants that directly degrade local air quality. These emissions contribute significantly to health problems and localized environmental issues, especially in poorly ventilated indoor settings. Pollutants generated include sulfur dioxide (\(\text{SO}_2\)), nitrogen oxides (\(\text{NO}_{\text{x}}\)), carbon monoxide (CO), and fine particulate matter.
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides contribute to the formation of acid rain, which can damage vegetation, acidify aquatic ecosystems, and corrode materials. Nitrogen oxides are also precursors to ground-level ozone, a harmful component of smog that irritates the respiratory system. Carbon monoxide results from incomplete combustion and poses a direct threat to human health by reducing the blood’s ability to carry oxygen.
Particulate matter, often referred to as soot, is a major concern, especially fine particles known as \(\text{PM}_{2.5}\) which penetrate deep into the lungs. Inhalation of these particles is linked to severe respiratory ailments, including asthma, lung cancer, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Inefficient kerosene lamps can convert up to 9 percent of the fuel into black carbon particles, a potent form of particulate matter. This localized air pollution is a significant health burden, with indoor exposure being particularly damaging for children and women relying on kerosene for light or cooking.
Impact of Spills and Liquid Contamination
When kerosene is accidentally released into the environment during storage, transportation, or disposal, its liquid state poses a threat to soil and water resources. Spills quickly contaminate the ground as petroleum hydrocarbons diffuse into the soil matrix. This contamination harms soil health by negatively affecting the microorganisms essential for the ecosystem’s function.
A concern with liquid kerosene contamination is the presence of volatile organic compounds known as BTEX: benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes. These compounds are highly toxic and can leach into groundwater, making it unsafe for drinking and agricultural use. Benzene, in particular, is a known human carcinogen, and all BTEX compounds can cause neurological disorders and other systemic health issues upon exposure.
In surface water bodies, a kerosene slick creates a physical barrier that restricts the exchange of oxygen between the water and the atmosphere. This depletion of dissolved oxygen can be lethal to aquatic life, including fish and invertebrates. Furthermore, the water-soluble components of kerosene are directly toxic to aquatic organisms and can persist in the environment, transporting contamination over considerable distances from the original spill site.
Contribution to Global Climate Change
Beyond localized air quality issues, the use of kerosene contributes to environmental harm on a global scale through atmospheric warming. As a fossil fuel, the combustion of kerosene releases carbon dioxide (\(\text{CO}_2\)), a greenhouse gas. The aviation industry, which relies heavily on kerosene-based jet fuel, is a significant source of global \(\text{CO}_2\) emissions.
Kerosene combustion also emits black carbon, a short-lived climate pollutant with a powerful warming effect. Black carbon particles absorb sunlight and heat the atmosphere, resulting in a direct increase in radiative forcing. Although black carbon remains in the atmosphere for only a few weeks, its warming potential is hundreds of times greater than that of \(\text{CO}_2\). This particulate matter is particularly damaging when deposited on ice and snow, as it darkens the surface, reduces the reflection of solar radiation, and accelerates melting.
The inefficient burning of kerosene in simple wick lamps is a disproportionately large source of black carbon. While the total volume from these lamps is smaller than from other sources, their emissions are almost pure black carbon, maximizing their warming effect. Addressing these short-lived pollutants offers a rapid opportunity to mitigate immediate climate warming effects.
Remediation and Safe Use Practices
Cleaning up environmental contamination from kerosene spills requires specialized techniques to restore the affected soil and water. For soil contamination, bioremediation is a common and effective method that uses naturally occurring or introduced microorganisms to break down the petroleum hydrocarbons into less harmful substances. Alternatively, contaminated soil may be excavated and treated off-site, often using thermal desorption to vaporize the contaminants.
In water, a spill is typically contained using booms to prevent the spread of the slick, and the liquid kerosene is then removed from the surface using specialized skimmers. For groundwater contaminated with dissolved BTEX compounds, pump-and-treat systems or chemical oxidation methods are employed. The goal of remediation is to reduce contaminant levels to a point where natural attenuation processes can safely complete the restoration.
Preventing contamination requires establishing safe use practices for kerosene. Proper storage is necessary, requiring the use of containers specifically designed for flammable liquids to minimize the risk of leaks and spills. Regular maintenance of equipment that uses kerosene, such as heaters or transfer hoses, helps identify and correct minor issues before they become major releases. Furthermore, using more efficient combustion devices can reduce the release of atmospheric pollutants, while substituting kerosene with cleaner alternatives, like solar-powered lighting, entirely eliminates the environmental risks associated with the fuel.