The production of modern electronics, such as smartphones, requires a surprisingly large volume of water hidden deep within the manufacturing process. This unseen consumption is referred to as the “water footprint” or “virtual water” of a product. Virtual water represents the total amount of freshwater used to produce a good, measured across its entire supply chain. This includes the water needed for growing raw materials, processing components, and the energy generation required to run the factories. This water is embedded in the creation of highly complex internal components, not simple final assembly. Understanding this footprint is crucial because it connects the high-tech device to distant, water-stressed ecosystems.
Calculating the Smartphone Water Footprint
The total water requirement for manufacturing a single smartphone is substantial, often surprising consumers who only consider their daily tap water use. Researchers frequently cite figures ranging from approximately 12,000 to 14,000 liters of water for a typical device. This wide range exists because assessments may include or exclude categories like “blue,” “green,” and “gray” water. Blue water refers to surface and groundwater consumed, green water is rainwater stored in the soil, and gray water is the volume required to dilute pollutants to acceptable water quality standards.
The majority of this volume is virtual water, consumed long before the final product is assembled. This water is primarily demanded by the production of raw materials and energy-intensive cooling processes in factories. For instance, the extraction and processing of precious metals are significant contributors to the overall water impact. These estimations highlight that the device’s true environmental cost far exceeds the water used during its operational lifetime.
Water Consumption During Component Manufacturing
The most significant water consumption occurs during the fabrication of highly complex internal components, particularly in the semiconductor industry. Water is considered the “largest volume chemical” used in semiconductor manufacturing, serving purposes far beyond simple washing. The process requires massive amounts of ultrapure water (UPW), which is thousands of times cleaner than drinking water, to rinse residue from silicon chips during fabrication. This extreme purity is necessary because even the slightest impurity can cause defects in the microscopic circuits, ensuring chip quality.
The fabrication of a single 30-centimeter silicon wafer, which contains many individual chips, can require approximately 8,300 liters of water, including about 5,700 liters of UPW. A large fabrication facility can use millions of gallons of water daily, a volume comparable to the consumption of a small city. The creation of UPW is itself an inefficient process, as municipal water must undergo several stages of filtration and deionization, requiring up to 1,600 gallons of municipal water to yield 1,000 gallons of UPW.
Water is also heavily used in the extraction of raw materials necessary for a smartphone’s construction. This includes separating rare earth elements and other metals from ore, which is a water-intensive mining process. Water is also consumed during the production of glass and screen components, where cleaning and etching processes are required to achieve the necessary clarity and precision. While the final assembly phase uses water for cleaning, the cumulative demand of these upstream activities—semiconductors, mining, and displays—dominates the total footprint.
Geographic Impact of Water Use
The immense water demand of the technology supply chain is concerning because much of the manufacturing is concentrated in regions already experiencing water stress. Semiconductor fabrication facilities are heavily located in areas like Taiwan and parts of Asia that face severe water scarcity issues. Water stress is quantified by the proportion of water demand relative to the available water resources, and high indices indicate a severe scarcity risk. This geographic concentration means that industrial demand exacerbates existing ecological and social vulnerabilities.
The consumption of millions of gallons of water daily by fabrication plants puts them in direct competition with local populations and the agricultural sector. In the Asia-Pacific region, which hosts a significant portion of global electronics production, over 90% of the population already faces an imminent water crisis. Industrial water withdrawal can deplete regional groundwater tables and surface water resources needed for drinking, sanitation, and food production. Beyond the volume consumed, the manufacturing process produces wastewater that can contain pollutants and heavy metals, posing risks to local ecosystems and human health when discharged.
Industry Efforts to Minimize Water Usage
Recognizing the environmental and operational risks associated with water scarcity, technology companies and their suppliers are implementing various mitigation strategies. One of the most effective methods involves the implementation of closed-loop water recycling systems within fabrication plants. These advanced systems filter and purify wastewater through multiple stages, allowing manufacturers to reuse significant portions of the water, minimizing the need for fresh municipal water intake.
Many major semiconductor manufacturers have set ambitious targets for water stewardship, including goals to maintain or reduce water withdrawal levels despite increasing production. Beyond recycling, companies are investing in advanced technologies to optimize the production of ultrapure water, increasing recovery rates during the purification stages. Some facilities are diversifying their water sources by utilizing rainwater collection, air conditioning condensate, or treating and reusing municipal sewage water for industrial purposes. These efforts are driven by a dual purpose: reducing environmental impact and insulating operations from the financial and logistical risks of water shortages.