Electric vehicle (EV) batteries are central to the shift towards sustainable transportation. Understanding the raw materials needed to produce these power sources is important for comprehending their environmental footprint and supply chain complexities. This article clarifies the quantities of raw materials required for a typical electric car battery.
Essential Materials in EV Batteries
Electric vehicle batteries, predominantly lithium-ion, rely on several raw materials. Lithium, a lightweight metal, is essential for battery operation, facilitating charge movement between electrodes and found within the cathode. Nickel is important in higher-energy density battery types, boosting capacity.
Cobalt and manganese are often used with nickel within the cathode. Cobalt enhances stability and conductivity, while manganese contributes to lower internal resistance and safety. Graphite forms the anode, storing and releasing lithium ions during charging and discharging cycles. Copper is utilized in current collectors, and aluminum is found in various parts, including the cathode structure, casing, and current collectors.
Material Requirements by Battery Chemistry
The material blend in an EV battery varies significantly by chemistry. Two prominent chemistries dominate the market: Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt (NMC) and Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP). For a typical 75 kilowatt-hour (kWh) NMC battery, refined materials include:
10 kilograms (22 pounds) of lithium
30 kilograms (66.1 pounds) of nickel
13 kilograms (28.7 pounds) of cobalt
25 kilograms (55.1 pounds) of manganese
60 kilograms (132.3 pounds) of graphite for the anode
45 kilograms (99.2 pounds) of copper
45 kilograms (99.2 pounds) of aluminum
In contrast, Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) batteries utilize a different composition. These batteries do not contain nickel or cobalt, instead relying on iron and phosphate for their cathode structure. This makes LFP batteries generally more affordable and sustainable, though they can be heavier for a given energy capacity. LFP batteries still require substantial amounts of lithium, similar to NMC chemistries, alongside significant quantities of graphite, copper, and aluminum.
The Raw Material-to-Battery Yield
The amount of raw ore extracted from the earth is significantly greater than the refined material that ultimately ends up in a battery. This difference is due to mining yields and extensive processing losses. For instance, lithium extracted from hard rock sources like spodumene ore typically contains only 6 to 7 percent lithium by weight, meaning a large volume of ore is processed for a relatively small amount of usable lithium. Even with advanced processing, the conversion of spodumene concentrates to battery-grade lithium can have yields around 92 percent, while lithium extracted from brines might yield about 85 percent.
Graphite also faces substantial yield challenges. Natural graphite ore undergoes multiple stages of milling, flotation, and chemical purification for the high purity required for battery anodes. Shaping graphite particles into spheres, known as spheronizing, can result in yields as low as 30 to 60 percent. Copper ore often has a very low concentration, with average grades below 0.6 percent copper, necessitating processing hundreds of kilograms of raw ore to obtain a single kilogram of refined copper. Aluminum refining requires approximately 4 kilograms of bauxite ore to produce 1 kilogram of refined aluminum. Cobalt is primarily obtained as a byproduct of nickel and copper mining, with overall processing yields for cobalt ore around 80 percent.
Calculating the Total Raw Material Footprint
Considering the refined material requirements and the inefficiencies of extraction and processing, the total raw material footprint for an electric car battery becomes substantial. For a typical 75 kWh NMC battery, the raw material equivalent is significantly higher than the refined materials listed previously. To produce 10 kg of refined lithium, around 150 kg (330.7 pounds) of lithium ore might be needed, assuming a 15:1 ore-to-metal ratio. The 60 kg of refined graphite could demand as much as 2,700 kg (5,952.5 pounds) of raw graphite ore, considering various processing yields.
Similarly, the 45 kg of refined copper could originate from approximately 6,750 kg (14,881.2 pounds) of raw copper ore, given typical low ore grades. The 45 kg of aluminum may require about 180 kg (396.8 pounds) of bauxite ore. Even for metals like nickel, cobalt, and manganese, which are often co-products, their extraction involves processing substantial quantities of associated ores. When accounting for all these factors, the total raw material equivalent required to produce a single 75 kWh NMC electric car battery can range from approximately 9,000 to over 10,000 kilograms (around 20,000 to 22,000 pounds). This estimation highlights the extensive material supply chain supporting the production of electric vehicles.