The European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is a medium-sized songbird recognized by its glossy black plumage, which displays an iridescent sheen of purples and greens in the summer. In winter, the plumage is mottled with small white spots, and the bird possesses a stout bill that turns bright yellow during the breeding season.
Native to Europe and parts of Asia, the species was intentionally introduced to North America in New York City in 1890. Its adaptability and high reproductive rate allowed it to rapidly spread across the continent, establishing a current population estimated at over 200 million individuals. This expansion across nearly every US state and Canadian province cemented its status as a widespread invasive species.
Lifespan in the Wild and Captivity
The average lifespan of the European Starling in the wild typically falls between two and four years. This is due to extremely high mortality rates experienced by juvenile birds, with approximately 80% of fledged young not surviving to their first breeding season. However, individuals that survive their first year can live considerably longer. The maximum recorded lifespan for a banded wild starling in North America was over 15 years and 3 months. Record-holding individuals from European studies have been documented to live for up to 21 years in the natural environment.
In controlled captive environments, starlings benefit from consistent food availability, protection from predators, and veterinary care, which significantly extends their longevity. Birds kept in aviaries or as pets have been known to live for 15 to 20 years. This difference highlights how external pressures and environmental hazards drastically limit the life expectancy of the species outside of human care. The annual mortality rate for adult starlings in the wild ranges widely, from 30% to 80%, depending on local conditions and weather severity.
Key Threats to Survival
The primary factors contributing to the short average lifespan of starlings are predation and environmental stresses. Mortality is highest in fall and winter, driven by migration demands, harsher weather, and reduced food availability. Natural predators like raptors pose a constant threat, and domestic cats also account for a significant number of bird deaths.
Exposure to disease is another substantial risk, as starlings are known carriers of pathogens such as Salmonella and blastomycosis. Since the starling is a prolific invasive species in North America, human intervention is a major source of mortality. They are not protected by federal law, leading to control efforts aimed at reducing their impact on agriculture and native birds.
Federal and local agencies employ various methods to manage starling populations, including the use of specialized avicides like DRC-1339 on agricultural sites. Furthermore, aggressive competition for nesting cavities with native species often leads to targeted removal and euthanasia by conservationists maintaining nest boxes. These culling and exclusion programs place continuous pressure on individual survival rates.
Foraging and Habitat Needs
The European Starling’s success and survival depend on its omnivorous diet and flexible habitat use. They are opportunistic ground foragers, primarily consuming insects and invertebrates like beetle larvae and earthworms during the breeding season. Their diet expands to include plant material such as fruits, berries, seeds, and grains, particularly in autumn and winter. Consuming human-supplied foods, including livestock feed and urban refuse, provides a stable, year-round food source.
For foraging efficiency, starlings prefer open, grassy areas with short vegetation, such as lawns, pastures, and agricultural fields. This preference allows them to easily walk and probe the soil for invertebrates while maintaining clear visibility of predators. For nesting and roosting, the species is a secondary cavity nester, relying on pre-existing holes. They utilize natural tree cavities, old woodpecker holes, and crevices in human structures, demonstrating an ability to thrive in disturbed, human-altered landscapes.