The European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is a common, adaptable bird across the United States today, recognized by its iridescent black plumage and distinctive calls. They are a ubiquitous sight in various landscapes, from bustling cities to agricultural fields. Their widespread presence often leads to questions about their origins, as they are not native to North America. The arrival of the European Starling on the continent was not an accident, but rather a deliberate act with far-reaching consequences.
The Intentional Release
The European Starling’s introduction to the United States traces back to Eugene Schieffelin, a pharmaceutical manufacturer and admirer of William Shakespeare, who spearheaded the effort to bring all birds mentioned in Shakespeare’s works to North America. In pursuit of this goal, Schieffelin released 60 European Starlings into New York City’s Central Park in March 1890. A year later, in March 1891, he released another 40 birds in the same location. This act, driven by cultural rather than ecological objectives, laid the groundwork for the starling’s establishment. While some historical accounts suggest other earlier, unsuccessful attempts, Schieffelin’s releases ultimately led to their permanent presence.
From One Park to a Continent
Once established, European Starlings spread rapidly across North America from Central Park. Their successful expansion was due to a combination of biological advantages and environmental factors. Starlings are remarkably adaptable, thriving in diverse habitats like urban areas, agricultural lands, and suburban environments. They have high reproductive rates, typically laying 4-7 eggs, with females often producing multiple broods per season, especially in warmer southern regions. This prolific breeding contributes significantly to their population growth.
Their aggressive nature also aids their spread, as they frequently outcompete native birds for nesting cavities and food. They are secondary cavity nesters, utilizing existing holes in trees or structures, often displacing native cavity-nesting birds such as bluebirds, flickers, and woodpeckers. In North America, starlings largely faced a lack of natural predators and diseases that regulate their populations in their native range. While some native predators consume starlings, their population growth has been largely unchecked. The species also demonstrates rapid local adaptation, with populations quickly adjusting to varying temperatures and rainfall.
Widespread Consequences
The widespread presence of European Starlings has led to significant ecological and economic consequences. Ecologically, starlings compete directly with native birds for nesting sites, often usurping cavities from species like Eastern Bluebirds, Purple Martins, and various woodpeckers. This competition can contribute to declines in native bird populations by reducing available breeding grounds. Starlings can also be violent towards competing species, destroying nests and pecking holes in eggs.
Economically, European Starlings pose substantial challenges, particularly to agriculture. They cause considerable damage to fruit and grain crops, including apples, blueberries, cherries, grapes, and peaches. This damage can result from direct consumption or by pecking and slashing fruits, reducing quality and increasing disease susceptibility. Estimates suggest starling damage to U.S. agriculture can amount to hundreds of millions of dollars annually.
Beyond crop damage, starlings impact livestock operations by consuming feed and contaminating food and water with their droppings. Public health concerns also arise from large starling roosts, which create unsanitary conditions, noise pollution, and harbor diseases like salmonella and histoplasmosis. Their droppings can also be corrosive to infrastructure.