Natural resources are materials found in nature that humans use with minimal modification. Human civilization, from basic biological functions to complex technological systems, relies on a constant supply of these resources. Our dependence spans from the air we breathe and the food we eat to the energy that powers our cities and the raw materials that build our infrastructure. This foundational relationship means the stability and future of human society are inextricably linked to the management of Earth’s natural resource base.
Resources Essential for Biological Survival
The most immediate human dependencies are those required for biological existence, beginning with the atmosphere. Air provides the oxygen necessary for cellular respiration, a process that converts glucose into energy in the body. Beyond breathing, the atmosphere maintains a stable pressure that allows liquid water to exist on the planet’s surface.
Water itself is the next essential resource, constituting over half of the average adult human body mass. Freshwater is constantly needed for drinking, sanitation, and the vast irrigation systems that support global agriculture. Humans can survive only a few days without access to this resource.
The solid foundation of our dependence is the land and its soil, which is the medium for food production. Arable soil provides the necessary nutrients, water, and physical support for nearly all crops. Furthermore, land provides the physical space for shelter, infrastructure, and all other human activities.
Resources Powering Modern Energy Systems
Modern civilization is characterized by an immense demand for energy, primarily derived from concentrated natural resources. Fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—remain the dominant source, powering transportation, manufacturing, and the majority of global electricity generation. These resources represent stored solar energy, converting to usable power through combustion.
The shift toward sustainable energy sources has introduced new dependencies on non-fuel minerals. Electric vehicles and grid-scale storage rely heavily on lithium-ion batteries, which require lithium, cobalt, and nickel. High-efficiency wind turbines and electric motors use powerful magnets that contain rare earth elements such as neodymium and dysprosium.
Generating electricity, whether from fossil fuels or nuclear power, also requires significant water for cooling. Thermoelectric power plants use water to cool steam back into liquid after it has spun the turbines. Cooling systems consume vast quantities through evaporation or withdraw large volumes from local sources, impacting aquatic ecosystems.
Industrial Inputs for Manufacturing and Infrastructure
The physical structures of the modern world are constructed from bulk materials and specialized elements extracted from the Earth’s crust. Construction and manufacturing rely on metals like iron, which is smelted to produce the steel that forms the skeleton of high-rise buildings and bridges. Copper, with its superior electrical conductivity, is the standard for wiring within buildings and appliances.
Aluminum, valued for its light weight and corrosion resistance, is a common choice for high-voltage overhead power transmission lines and vehicle bodies. Construction materials are also drawn from common minerals. Silica sand is a primary ingredient in glass manufacturing and a component of concrete and mortar, along with aggregates like gravel and limestone.
Sophisticated electronics depend on specialized elements. Gold is used on circuit boards and connectors due to its high conductivity and resistance to corrosion, ensuring the long-term reliability of sensitive devices. Cobalt provides thermal and structural stability in the cathodes of lithium-ion batteries used in portable electronics.
Non-Extractive Dependence on Ecosystem Services
Beyond the resources that are physically extracted, humans depend on the regulatory functions of natural systems, often called ecosystem services. Climate regulation is performed through carbon sequestration by the world’s forests and oceans. Forests absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it in biomass and soil, acting as terrestrial carbon sinks.
The oceans serve as the largest active carbon sink, absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide through surface exchange and biological processes involving microscopic phytoplankton. These natural processes slow the rate at which greenhouse gases accumulate, providing a buffer against rapid climate change.
Water purification is a localized ecosystem service provided by intact watersheds and wetlands. As water flows through these natural filters, plants and soil microorganisms remove up to 90% of sediments and excess nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. This natural filtration reduces the need for expensive, energy-intensive human-made water treatment infrastructure.
Nutrient cycling is an indispensable service that maintains soil fertility for agriculture. Decomposers, from fungi to bacteria, break down dead organic matter, releasing essential elements like nitrogen and phosphorus back into the soil in forms that plants can absorb. This process sustains the productivity of agricultural lands.
Pollination, carried out primarily by insects, is another biological service that supports food security. A significant portion of the world’s food crops, including many fruits, nuts, and vegetables, depend on animal pollinators to reproduce. This biological interaction contributes billions of dollars in economic value to global agriculture annually.