Fabric contains carbon, a fact relevant to both chemistry and global ecology. Nearly all textiles are organic compounds, fundamentally built upon carbon atoms bonded with other elements. This inherent material composition confirms carbon’s presence in every thread. Beyond the fiber’s structure, the processes used to create, dye, and transport fabric release significant amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The entire textile supply chain is thus linked to the global carbon cycle through the material itself and the energy required for its production.
The Chemical Composition of Fabric
The basic scientific reason fabrics contain carbon lies in their nature as polymers. A polymer is a large molecule made up of repeating smaller units called monomers, and textile fibers are long-chain polymers. Polymers used in clothing, whether natural or synthetic, are classified as organic compounds because they all contain carbon-hydrogen bonds.
For instance, cotton is nearly pure cellulose, a polymer where carbon makes up approximately 40% of its weight (chemical formula (C6H10O5)n). Animal fibers like wool and silk are protein-based, consisting of keratin or fibroin. These complex structures are built from amino acids containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. The carbon backbone is the structural element that gives all these materials their fibrous nature and strength.
Carbon in Plant and Animal Fibers
The carbon found in natural fibers is considered biogenic, meaning it originates from living organisms and is part of the Earth’s active, short-term carbon cycle. Plant-based fibers, such as cotton and linen, are created through photosynthesis, the process where the plant absorbs carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere. The plant converts this atmospheric gas into the carbohydrates that form the cellulose structure of the fiber.
Animal fibers, including wool and silk, also contain biogenic carbon, though they obtain it indirectly. Sheep, for example, consume plants, transferring the atmospheric carbon stored in the vegetation into the protein structure of their wool. This carbon was recently removed from the atmosphere and is held within the garment for its lifespan. Wool, specifically, can contain up to 50% organic carbon by weight, which is a higher proportion than the carbon found in cotton.
Carbon in Man-Made Synthetic Fibers
The source of carbon in synthetic fibers presents a significant difference when compared to natural materials. Fibers like polyester, nylon, and acrylic are produced from petrochemicals derived from crude oil and natural gas. This means the carbon atoms forming the polymer chains of these textiles originate from fossil fuels, resources sequestered deep underground for millions of years.
The manufacturing of these man-made materials involves extracting this ancient, or ‘fossil,’ carbon and converting it into polymers like polyethylene terephthalate (PET) for polyester. This process effectively introduces carbon that was locked away back into the active environmental cycle. The distinction is that synthetic fibers add new carbon to the atmosphere when they are produced and ultimately incinerated, whereas natural fibers cycle carbon that was already recently present.
Measuring the Textile Industry’s Emissions
The environmental perspective on fabric carbon shifts focus from the carbon stored in the fiber to the greenhouse gases released during the supply chain. The textile industry is a major contributor to global emissions, estimated to account for between 2% and 10% of the worldwide total. The vast majority of these emissions come not from the raw material itself, but from the energy-intensive manufacturing and processing stages.
The biggest sources of carbon release are energy consumption for dyeing and finishing, which can account for up to 36% of the industry’s total emissions. Yarn preparation and fiber production are also major contributors, often relying on energy generated from fossil fuels in the countries where textile manufacturing is concentrated.
The entire environmental impact, often called the product’s carbon footprint, is typically measured using a tool known as a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). This method evaluates the environmental costs from the raw material extraction or cultivation, through manufacturing, transportation, and consumer use, up to the product’s disposal. LCA helps identify the “hotspots” of emissions, which consistently show that the manufacturing phase, encompassing fiber processing and fabric finishing, drives the largest amount of carbon release.