Earth has multiple sets of poles, and the answer to whether there are North and South Poles depends entirely on which scientific definition is being used. The planet’s geometry, its rotation, and its internal molten core each create distinct polar reference points, none of which perfectly align with the others. Science uses three primary definitions—geographic, magnetic, and geomagnetic—to describe these different poles, each serving a specific purpose for navigation, mapping, and understanding the planet’s dynamic processes. Clarifying these definitions is necessary to understand how navigators and scientists define direction and location across the globe.
The Fixed Points of Rotation
The most familiar reference points are the Geographic North and South Poles, often called the “True” poles, which are defined by Earth’s spin. These points are the two locations where the imaginary axis of Earth’s rotation intersects the planet’s surface. The North Geographic Pole is located in the Arctic Ocean, while the South Geographic Pole is situated on the Antarctic continent.
These poles are fixed at 90 degrees North and 90 degrees South latitude, serving as the foundation for all global coordinate systems, including latitude and longitude. They are the reference points used for cartography, Global Positioning Systems (GPS), and defining the positions of Earth-orbiting satellites.
While these poles are considered fixed, they do undergo a slight, continuous shift known as polar motion. This movement is a subtle wobble of the rotational axis that causes the poles to drift in a circular pattern, typically displacing them only about six meters per year. Despite this minor motion, the Geographic Poles maintain their status as the fixed anchors for global mapping and navigation.
The Poles That Wander
The Magnetic North and South Poles are the points that govern a compass and are defined by Earth’s constantly changing magnetic field. These poles are the two locations on the surface where the magnetic field lines are perfectly vertical to the surface. At the North Magnetic Pole, a compass needle that can pivot vertically would dip straight down into the Earth.
The existence of this magnetic field is due to the geodynamo, which is the turbulent movement of molten iron and nickel in Earth’s outer core. Because this liquid metal is constantly swirling, the Magnetic Poles are highly dynamic and constantly shift their position. For instance, the North Magnetic Pole has migrated over 1,000 kilometers since 1831, moving at speeds that have recently reached up to 55 kilometers per year.
This constant movement means that nautical and aeronautical maps must be continuously updated to account for the difference between the Geographic North and the Magnetic North, a correction known as magnetic declination. Furthermore, the pole in the Northern Hemisphere, called the North Magnetic Pole, is actually a South magnetic pole in physical terms because the north end of a compass needle is attracted to it, and opposite poles attract.
The Global Field Model
A third, more abstract set of poles is the Geomagnetic Poles, which are derived from a theoretical model of Earth’s magnetic field. This model simplifies the complex, irregular magnetic field by treating the planet as if it contained a single, massive bar magnet—a dipole—located at its center. The Geomagnetic North and South Poles are the two antipodal points where the axis of this theoretical dipole intersects the Earth’s surface.
This theoretical dipole axis is currently tilted by about 9.6 to 11 degrees relative to the Earth’s axis of rotation. Unlike the Magnetic Poles, the Geomagnetic Poles are always perfectly opposite each other on the globe, meaning the line connecting them passes directly through the planet’s center. This theoretical model is important for scientists who study space weather and the interaction between the Earth’s magnetic field and the solar wind. The auroral ovals, where the Northern and Southern Lights are most frequently observed, are centered around the Geomagnetic Poles.