The year 1883 was a period of widespread illness, with daily life shaped by the constant threat of infection. Causes of sickness were often mysterious, and effective treatments were scarce, even as scientific understanding began to emerge.
Prevalent Diseases of the Era
In 1883, several infectious diseases posed significant threats to public health and were common causes of mortality. Smallpox was feared for its contagiousness and devastating effects, including fever, vomiting, and pus-filled blisters that could lead to blindness or severe scarring. It spread easily through airborne transmission, often via face-to-face contact.
Cholera, an infection of the small intestine, was primarily transmitted through contaminated food and drinking water. Symptoms included bloody diarrhea, fever, nausea, and cramps. Its impact in the U.S. was notable, especially in populated areas with inadequate sewage systems. Tuberculosis, often referred to as consumption, was also a frequent cause of death, presenting as a chronic infection that could allow sufferers to remain ambulatory for years while still being infectious. Diphtheria, scarlet fever, and typhoid fever also contributed to the burden of disease, with scarlet fever outbreaks being particularly lethal in the U.S. during this period.
Understanding Disease Causation
The understanding of disease causation in 1883 was undergoing a transformation, moving away from older beliefs. For centuries, the miasma theory suggested diseases arose from “bad air” emanating from decaying organic matter. This theory posited that environmental factors like contaminated water and poor hygiene were responsible for illness, rather than person-to-person transmission.
A shift began with the work of scientists like Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch, who provided evidence for the germ theory of disease. Pasteur’s experiments, such as those with swan-neck flasks, demonstrated that airborne microbes caused spoilage, leading him to suggest that microbes could also cause infection in living organisms. Building on this, Robert Koch established a protocol to determine the cause of infectious diseases, linking specific microbes to specific illnesses. In 1882, Koch identified the bacterium responsible for tuberculosis, and in 1883, he discovered the cholera bacterium, Vibrio cholerae, in the intestines. Koch’s work showed that different germs caused different diseases, laying the foundation for modern bacteriology.
Medical Approaches and Public Health
Medical treatments in 1883 were largely supportive, focusing on symptom management and basic care rather than targeting disease causes. General practices included rest and isolation to prevent further spread. For specific conditions, such as malaria, quinine was used. For many common illnesses like dysentery, treatments such as purgatives like turpentine or castor oil were sometimes administered, which could worsen the patient’s condition.
Public health initiatives were beginning to emerge, driven by a growing, though still incomplete, understanding of disease transmission. Sanitation improvements were undertaken, particularly in urban areas, to address the perceived link between foul odors and disease, even before the full acceptance of germ theory. Quarantine measures were implemented, with stations established at ports to detain infected ship crews and cargoes. The National Quarantine Act of 1878 authorized these measures to prevent the introduction of contagious diseases into the United States. However, these efforts faced challenges, as the precise modes of transmission for many diseases were still being fully elucidated, and prolonged isolation measures were often unpopular due to their economic and social impacts.