Our planet has been home to numerous human-like species, but none have captivated our imagination quite like the Neanderthals, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis. This extinct human species roamed Eurasia for hundreds of thousands of years, leaving behind a rich archaeological record. Their story offers insights into a time when multiple human lineages shared the Earth.
Who Were Neanderthals?
Neanderthals were a distinct human species characterized by a robust physical build, a prominent double-arched brow ridge, and a large nose. Their bodies were relatively short and stocky, averaging 1.50-1.75 meters in height and weighing 64-82 kilograms, adaptations that likely aided in generating and retaining body heat in colder climates. Their brain size, ranging from at least 1,200 to 1,750 cubic centimeters, was comparable to, and often larger than, that of modern humans, indicating a high level of intelligence.
This species inhabited a vast geographical range across Europe and southwest and central Asia, extending eastward to the Altai Mountains of Siberia. The earliest known Neanderthal-like fossils date back approximately 430,000 years, with the best-known examples living between 130,000 and 40,000 years ago. They were the first human species to permanently occupy Europe, adapting to diverse environments from cold steppe to warm temperate woodlands.
Daily Life and Culture
Neanderthals were skilled toolmakers, utilizing sophisticated Mousterian technology, which involved creating flakes from prepared stone cores using the Levallois technique. These tools included scrapers for tanning hides, awls for punching holes in hides to create clothing, and burins for working with wood and bone. Wooden spears also indicate their advanced hunting capabilities.
Their diet was diverse, primarily consisting of meat from large game like woolly mammoths, bison, and reindeer. However, fossilized fecal matter and dental calculus also suggest they consumed abundant plant matter, and even shellfish when available. Neanderthals effectively used fire for warmth, cooking, and protection, with flint tools capable of striking sparks found at various sites.
Evidence points to Neanderthals engaging in symbolic behaviors. They practiced burial of their dead at sites like La Chapelle-aux-Saints and Shanidar, sometimes placing items on graves, hinting at ritualistic practices. They also collected unusual objects like crystals and fossils, and created personal adornments from bird claws, feathers, and shells, along with simple designs on bones and stone fragments.
Coexistence and Interbreeding
Modern humans, Homo sapiens, and Neanderthals coexisted geographically for several millennia, with evidence showing Homo sapiens reaching Northern Europe approximately 45,000 years ago. This overlap allowed for interactions between the two groups, leading to interbreeding. Genetic studies have revealed that non-African human populations today carry 1 to 4 percent of their genome from Neanderthals, with the highest amounts found in East Asians.
This interbreeding was a sustained period of interaction, estimated to have begun around 50,500 years ago and continued for approximately 7,000 years. This genetic exchange provided modern humans with genes that influenced traits such as skin color, immunity, and nervous systems, which may have been beneficial for adapting to new environments outside of Africa. The presence of Neanderthal DNA in our genomes highlights their contribution to the modern human genetic makeup.
The End of the Neanderthal Era
Neanderthals disappeared from the archaeological record around 40,000 years ago, although some populations in southern Iberia may have persisted until about 35,000 years ago. Multiple factors are hypothesized to have contributed to their extinction. One significant factor was climate change, as intense cold spells and frequent temperature fluctuations during the last Ice Age led to severe reductions in plant life and the large mammals Neanderthals hunted.
Competition with Homo sapiens for resources and territory is another leading theory. As modern humans expanded across Eurasia, they may have outcompeted Neanderthals for food and other necessities, leading to a decline in Neanderthal populations.
The assimilation of Neanderthals into larger Homo sapiens populations through interbreeding is also considered a contributing factor to their disappearance. Instead of dying off completely, their genes were absorbed into the modern human gene pool. This genetic mixing, combined with potential isolation into smaller, inbred groups during harsh climatic conditions, could have made Neanderthal populations more vulnerable to environmental changes and diseases.