The popular image of Vikings involves intense battles and fearsome warriors. While rooted in history, modern science offers a more direct understanding of their lives through the analysis of skeletal remains. Skulls in particular provide a physical record of the world these Norse people inhabited, moving beyond sagas to offer a tangible connection to their experiences with conflict and cultural practices.
Archaeological Discoveries of Viking Skulls
The discovery of Viking-age skeletons offers knowledge about their societal structure. In 2009, a mass burial pit was unearthed in Dorset, England, containing the remains of over 50 decapitated men. Isotope analysis of their teeth suggested they were from various locations across Scandinavia, pointing to a large, seafaring raiding party. The execution-style deaths and disordered burial suggest a catastrophic end at the hands of local Anglo-Saxons.
Mass graves stand in contrast to individual burials, which provide different insights. In places like Hrísbrú, Iceland, well-preserved skeletons in a cemetery setting speak to a more settled community. Some graves show evidence of long-standing traditions, such as including clench bolts from ships, indicating a ritual connection to their seafaring past. The presence of both formal cemeteries and execution pits highlights the diverse experiences of these groups.
Archaeologists also uncover skulls in unusual contexts that hint at specific ritualistic behaviors. In some Scandinavian locations, parts of skulls have been found buried beneath the floors of longhouses or placed in wells. One discovery in Aarhus, Denmark, was the skull of a man whose face was slashed off before being deposited in a well. These findings suggest human remains were used in practices to protect a home or to handle the remains of an enemy.
Evidence of a Violent Life
Viking skulls frequently display clear evidence of a violent existence, with trauma patterns that allow experts to reconstruct past events. Injuries are categorized as either blunt-force or sharp-force trauma. Blunt-force injuries, from clubs or falls, appear as radiating fractures, while sharp-force trauma from bladed weapons like swords and axes leaves distinct cut marks on the bone.
Analysis of these wounds can reveal if they were inflicted near the time of death, a concept known as perimortem injury. At a burial site in Hrísbrú, one man’s skull showed massive cranial trauma from an axe, including a blow to the side of the head and a second, fatal wound to the back. The sharpness and location of these cuts indicate they were delivered with immense force during combat, and the study of weapon marks helps confirm the types of armaments used.
The placement of injuries offers clues into the circumstances of an individual’s death. Wounds to the front of the skull often suggest face-to-face combat, while trauma to the back can indicate an execution or a surprise attack. At a grave in Ballateare on the Isle of Man, a young woman’s skull showed the back of her head had been sliced off by a sharp blade. This injury, combined with her prone burial position, has led some to believe she may have been a victim of ritual sacrifice.
Intentional Body Modification
Beyond battle scars, some Viking skulls display a form of cultural expression: intentional dental modification. Archaeologists have discovered numerous skulls, primarily in Sweden, belonging to men who had horizontal grooves filed into their upper front teeth. These modifications are remarkably precise, consisting of one or more parallel lines etched into the enamel, a task that required considerable skill.
The purpose of these filed teeth remains a subject of study. One leading hypothesis is that the markings were a symbol of status, identifying the individuals as members of an exclusive group like elite warriors or a guild of merchants. Another possibility is that the grooves were filled with pigment to create a more intimidating appearance in battle or during trade negotiations.
This practice reveals a concern for appearance and group identity that goes beyond simple warfare. Unlike battle injuries, which were inflicted upon them, these dental modifications were a deliberate choice. This act of body modification demonstrates a layer of social complexity and cultural identity, challenging the one-dimensional view of Vikings as purely pragmatic warriors.
Debunking the Skull Cup Myth
A persistent image associated with Vikings is the practice of drinking from the skulls of their enemies. This notion has been a staple of popular culture, but it is a widely debunked myth with origins in a linguistic error. There is no archaeological or historical evidence to support the idea that Vikings fashioned human skulls into drinking vessels.
The misconception stems from the 17th-century work of Danish scholar Ole Worm. While translating Old Norse poetry, he misinterpreted a “kenning,” a metaphorical phrase common in Norse literature. The line described heroes drinking from “the curved branches of skulls,” which was a poetic way of referring to drinking horns. Worm took the phrase literally, and the sensational idea of skull cups was born.
Archaeological discoveries have failed to produce any physical evidence of this practice. While skulls have been found with various forms of trauma and in ritual contexts, none show the modifications necessary to function as a cup, such as being hollowed out and smoothed. The story of the skull cup is an example of how a mistranslation can create a lasting, yet entirely false, cultural myth.