Neanderthals, a distinct hominin species, inhabited Eurasia for hundreds of thousands of years before their disappearance around 40,000 years ago. Their fossilized bones offer a unique window into their lives, providing information about their physical characteristics, behaviors, and interactions with their environment. These remains help researchers understand Neanderthal existence and their place in human history.
Distinctive Skeletal Anatomy
Neanderthal bones display several unique features that differentiate them from modern humans, Homo sapiens. Their skulls are notably long and low, contrasting with the more globular shape of modern human crania. A prominent double-arched brow ridge, known as a supraorbital torus, sits above their large eye sockets. The back of the Neanderthal skull often features a bony projection called an occipital bun.
The facial structure of Neanderthals also shows distinct traits, including a projecting midface and a very large, wide nasal aperture. This large nose may have been an adaptation to colder, drier climates, helping to warm and humidify inhaled air. Their jaws and teeth were robust, with larger front teeth compared to modern humans, sometimes showing wear patterns suggesting their use for tasks beyond chewing.
Beyond the skull, the postcranial skeleton of Neanderthals reveals a stocky, muscular build. They had shorter limbs relative to their torsos and a broad, barrel-shaped rib cage. Adult male Neanderthals averaged about 165 cm (5 ft 5 in) tall and weighed around 78 kg (172 lb), while females averaged 155 cm (5 ft 1 in) and 66 kg (146 lb). Their limb bones were bowed and robustly built, with large joint surfaces, reflecting a physically demanding lifestyle and adaptations to cold environments.
Significant Fossil Discoveries
The initial discovery of Neanderthal remains occurred in 1856 in the Neander Valley, near Düsseldorf, Germany. This find, which included a robust cranial vault and several limb bones, gave the species its name and began scientific efforts to understand this archaic human group.
A significant discovery took place in 1908 at La Chapelle-aux-Saints in south-central France, where a nearly complete male Neanderthal skeleton was unearthed. This individual, dubbed “the Old Man,” was estimated to be in his 50s-60s at the time of death and exhibited signs of severe arthritis and tooth loss.
French anthropologist Marcellin Boule’s initial reconstruction of the La Chapelle-aux-Saints skeleton incorrectly depicted Neanderthals as stooped, brutish, and ape-like with a severely curved spine. This portrayal shaped popular perception for decades. Later re-examinations in the 1950s revealed that many of the features Boule observed were due to the individual’s severe osteoarthritis, and that Neanderthals had a posture similar to modern humans.
Evidence of Neanderthal Life and Health
The bones of Neanderthals provide extensive evidence of their daily lives and health challenges through paleopathology, the study of ancient diseases and injuries. A high frequency of healed fractures across the Neanderthal skeletal record indicates a physically demanding and often dangerous existence. These injuries range from minor to severe, affecting major weight-bearing bones.
The survival of individuals with serious injuries, such as the Shanidar 1 specimen from Iraq, suggests a complex level of social care within Neanderthal groups. Shanidar 1, an individual who lived between 35 and 50 years, suffered from multiple debilitating impairments, including blindness in one eye, a withered arm, and deformities in his leg and foot, yet lived for many years after these traumas. This survival implies that other members of his group provided support, perhaps by assisting with food or offering protection.
Beyond trauma, Neanderthal bones also show signs of degenerative diseases like arthritis, particularly in older individuals such as the “Old Man” from La Chapelle-aux-Saints. Evidence also points to dental issues, including tooth loss and abscesses. Some dental analyses suggest the use of toothpicks to alleviate irritation from inflamed gums and even the consumption of plants with medicinal properties.
Genetic Insights from Ancient DNA
Modern scientific advancements allow for the extraction and sequencing of ancient DNA from Neanderthal fossils, enhancing our understanding of this species. This genetic analysis has provided insights into their biology, population dynamics, and interactions with modern humans.
A significant discovery from ancient DNA is the confirmation that Neanderthals interbred with modern humans. Most non-African populations today carry approximately 1 to 4 percent Neanderthal DNA in their genomes, a legacy of these past interactions. This interbreeding likely occurred around 47,000 years ago and continued for approximately 7,000 years, as modern humans migrated out of Africa into Eurasia.
Genetic studies have also offered clues about Neanderthal appearance, indicating they possessed genes linked to traits such as red hair and light skin. Furthermore, some Neanderthal genes passed to modern humans appear to have influenced traits like skin pigmentation, metabolism, and immune function, possibly aiding adaptation to new environments. Research continues to uncover how these ancient genetic contributions affect modern human health.