Captagon is a synthetic stimulant in the amphetamine class of drugs, known by street names like “the poor man’s coke” and “the jihadist’s drug.” The substance has gained notoriety for its widespread use, particularly in the Middle East. While now an illicit substance produced in clandestine labs, its origins trace back to legitimate pharmaceutical development.
From Medicine to Illicit Substance
Captagon was originally the brand name for the compound fenethylline, first synthesized in Germany in the 1960s. For years, it was legally prescribed to treat conditions like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, and depression. The medication was considered a milder alternative to other available stimulants at the time.
By the 1980s, concerns grew among medical professionals and international bodies about fenethylline’s potential for abuse and addiction. These concerns led to a worldwide ban, and its legal production ceased in 1986. Following the prohibition, remaining stockpiles were smuggled from Eastern Europe to markets in the Middle East, marking its transformation into an illicit narcotic.
Illicit manufacturing of counterfeit Captagon tablets began in the 1990s, initially in southeastern Europe. Criminal networks in the Balkans and Turkey smuggled these drugs to the Arabian Peninsula. As authorities cracked down on these operations, production migrated closer to its consumer markets in the Middle East.
Physiological and Psychological Effects
As a central nervous system stimulant, Captagon’s effects begin when the body metabolizes fenethylline into two separate compounds: amphetamine and theophylline. This process increases the release of neurotransmitters like dopamine in the brain. The resulting surge in brain chemicals produces the drug’s short-term effects.
In the short term, users experience euphoria, heightened energy, and increased focus. The drug suppresses the need for sleep and appetite, allowing individuals to remain awake and active for extended periods. Users become more talkative and feel a sense of well-being and confidence.
The long-term consequences of sustained Captagon use are severe. Chronic abuse can lead to serious cardiovascular problems, including heart palpitations, high blood pressure, and heart failure. Psychologically, users can develop paranoia, auditory and visual hallucinations, and aggressive behavior. The drug is highly addictive, and prolonged use may result in a psychosis difficult to distinguish from schizophrenia.
The Geopolitical Role of Captagon
The Syrian civil war, beginning in 2011, created ideal conditions for the mass production of Captagon. The state’s collapse and the economic crisis allowed various factions to use drug manufacturing for revenue. Syria has since become the global epicenter of Captagon production, producing an estimated 80% of the world’s supply. This trade is a financial lifeline for the Syrian government and its affiliated armed groups.
The drug’s production and trafficking generate billions of dollars, providing an economic buffer for a regime isolated by international sanctions. The Syrian government and its allies, including the Fourth Armored Division and Hezbollah, are directly linked to the manufacturing and distribution networks. This narco-economy gives the Syrian government a tool in regional politics, using the drug trade as a bargaining chip in diplomatic negotiations.
Captagon also played a direct role on the battlefield. Combatants from various groups used the drug to endure long battles, stay awake for extended periods, and suppress fear. This use by fighters earned it nicknames that reflect its presence in conflict zones, making it both a source of funding and a tool to fuel the stamina of combatants.
Global Trafficking and Enforcement
Primary trafficking routes for Captagon originate in production hubs in Syria and, to a lesser extent, Lebanon. The drug is smuggled to its largest consumer markets in the Gulf states, particularly Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Jordan serves as a major transit country, where its border with Syria is a militarized zone with frequent clashes between smugglers and guards.
Law enforcement agencies in the region have made massive seizures that highlight the trade’s scale. In one instance, Saudi authorities discovered 46 million amphetamine pills hidden in a shipment of flour. Jordanian forces have also intercepted millions of pills at the border, sometimes in deadly confrontations with traffickers.
While the Middle East remains the core of the Captagon trade, the drug is increasingly appearing elsewhere. Seizures have been made in European countries like Italy and Greece, as well as in Malaysia. This suggests that trafficking networks are expanding their reach and seeking new markets, presenting a growing challenge for international law enforcement.