Helping behavior, or prosocial behavior, involves voluntary actions intended to benefit others. These acts range from small kindnesses to significant sacrifices and support cooperative societies. The reasons people lend a hand are complex, shaped by a mix of motivations, situational cues, and personal characteristics that determine the outcome in a moment of need.
The Motivations Behind Helping
Motivations for helping fall into two categories: self-interest and selfless concern. From an evolutionary perspective, kin selection suggests people are more likely to help close relatives with whom they share genes. This promotes the continuation of that genetic makeup, even at a potential cost to the individual.
Another evolutionary explanation is reciprocal altruism, where helping is based on the expectation that the favor will be returned. This cooperation is not limited to relatives and operates on a principle of mutual benefit. It establishes a network of social obligations and exchanges that can enhance the survival and well-being of all individuals involved.
Psychological motivations also play a part. The empathy-altruism hypothesis posits that feeling empathy for a person motivates purely altruistic help. If empathy is not triggered, the decision to help may be based on a cost-benefit analysis. In contrast, the negative-state relief model suggests an egoistic motive: people help to alleviate their own unpleasant feelings, like guilt or sadness, after witnessing someone in distress.
Situational Influences on Helping
The context of a situation strongly influences whether a person will offer assistance. A well-documented phenomenon is the bystander effect, where the likelihood of an individual helping decreases as the number of people present increases. This effect is not due to apathy but to psychological processes in a group setting. Two factors contribute to this inaction: diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance.
Diffusion of responsibility occurs when observers assume someone else will intervene. With more people present, the personal responsibility to act is divided among the group, making each individual feel less obligated to take charge. This can lead to a collective paralysis where everyone waits for someone else to make the first move. This division of responsibility dilutes the sense of individual duty that often prompts helping behavior.
Pluralistic ignorance describes a situation where individuals in a group privately reject a norm but incorrectly assume most others accept it. In an emergency, if no one reacts with alarm, observers may conclude the situation is not serious and that help is not needed. For a bystander to intervene, they must navigate a series of cognitive steps, and failure at any stage can prevent helping. These steps are:
- Noticing the event
- Interpreting it as an emergency
- Accepting personal responsibility
- Knowing how to help
- Implementing the decision to act
Personal Factors That Affect Helping
An individual’s characteristics can influence their likelihood of helping. Stable personality traits are one predictor, as people high in agreeableness, empathy, and conscientiousness tend to be more prosocial. A belief in a just world—the idea that people get what they deserve—can also influence helping, though it may lead to victim-blaming if someone is perceived as responsible for their misfortune.
Temporary internal states, particularly mood, strongly influence helping. The “feel-good, do-good” phenomenon describes how people in a positive mood are more inclined to help. Good moods can make people view life more positively, and helping can be a way to prolong that feeling. Conversely, some negative feelings can also increase helping; for instance, guilt may motivate a person to perform a good deed to repair their self-image.
How to Cultivate Prosocial Behavior
Understanding the factors that inhibit helping allows for developing strategies to encourage it. To counteract the bystander effect, reduce ambiguity by singling out an individual. Instead of a general cry for help, pointing to a specific person and giving a clear command—such as, “You in the red jacket, please call 911″—can break through the diffusion of responsibility. This makes one person feel directly responsible, increasing the likelihood of a swift response.
Modeling prosocial behavior is another tool, especially for children. When adults and peers demonstrate helping, it establishes a social norm and teaches observers how to act. Educating people about phenomena that prevent intervention, like the bystander effect, can also be effective, as awareness can empower individuals to override their hesitation and act.