Skeletal remains are a primary source of information, offering a direct link to the individuals of the Mayan civilization. While architectural ruins and intricate pottery provide context about the broader society, bones tell a human story. They allow researchers to piece together personal histories of health, diet, and even social status.
Ritual and Burial Contexts
Elite members of society were often interred in elaborate tombs constructed within the heart of pyramids or palaces. These tombs were frequently accompanied by a wealth of grave goods, including jade jewelry and intricate ceramics, signifying the individual’s high status and reinforcing the power of the ruling lineage.
Commoner burials were typically much simpler, often located in the floors or courtyards of residential compounds. This practice of interring relatives within the home suggests a strong tradition of ancestor veneration. These burials show that remembrance and a connection to lineage were important aspects of life for all levels of Mayan society.
Caves and cenotes, or natural sinkholes, served as important locations for ritual activity involving human remains. The Maya viewed caves as conduits to the underworld (Xibalba), while cenotes were considered portals to the supernatural world and were often the site of sacrificial offerings. The discovery of human bones in these locations points to their use in complex rituals to communicate with deities, highlighting the integration of Mayan cosmology with their landscape.
Scientific Insights from Skeletal Remains
Bioarchaeological analysis of Mayan skeletons provides a detailed narrative of individual lives. Isotopic analysis of bone collagen, for example, offers a menu of past meals. By measuring carbon isotope ratios, scientists can determine the prominence of certain plants in a person’s diet. This has shown that maize was a dietary staple, constituting 55% to 60% of what the ancient Maya ate. Nitrogen isotope levels, in turn, indicate the amount of protein consumed, distinguishing between diets rich in meat or those more reliant on plant-based proteins.
The bones themselves are a record of health and hardship. Skeletal markers can indicate periods of malnutrition or stress during childhood, visible as lines of arrested growth on teeth and long bones. Pathological changes on the bone surface can diagnose diseases like arthritis, infections, and certain nutritional deficiencies, such as those caused by an over-reliance on maize, which can interfere with iron absorption.
Skeletal remains also display evidence of deliberate cultural modifications to the human body. One of the most prominent practices was cranial deformation, where an infant’s head was bound to create a flattened or elongated shape, possibly to signify social status. The Maya also modified their teeth for aesthetic or ritual purposes. This included filing teeth into various shapes or inlaying them with small, polished discs of jade or pyrite.
Evidence of physical violence is often preserved in the skeleton. Healed or unhealed fractures can indicate whether an injury was from an accident, interpersonal conflict, or organized warfare. Patterns of trauma across a population can suggest periods of increased violence. Furthermore, cut marks or other signs of dismemberment on bones found in ritual contexts can provide direct evidence of human sacrifice.
Notable Archaeological Finds
The tomb of the “Red Queen,” discovered in Palenque, is a prime example of an elite Mayan burial. The woman’s remains were found inside a limestone sarcophagus, covered in the bright red cinnabar powder that gives her the name. The tomb was rich with grave goods, including a malachite mask and numerous jade artifacts, indicating her royal status. Her well-preserved skeleton has allowed for analysis of her diet and health, providing a glimpse into the life of a high-ranking woman.
The Sacred Cenote at Chichén Itzá offers a contrasting look at Mayan ritual practice as a place of offering, not a tomb. Dredging of the cenote has yielded artifacts like gold and jade alongside the remains of hundreds of individuals. Scientific analysis of the bones reveals that victims ranged in age, and recent genetic studies on 64 individuals showed they were all male, with some being closely related. This finding contradicts earlier popular theories that primarily young women were sacrificed there.
In Belize, the Actun Tunichil Muknal (ATM) cave contains the “Crystal Maiden.” This is the complete skeleton of a young adult, likely a sacrifice victim, whose bones have been calcified over centuries, giving them a sparkling appearance. The skeleton lies in a remote chamber deep within the cave system. The context of this burial, far from a city center, illustrates the diversity of Mayan ritual landscapes and their use of caves for important ceremonies.