Neanderthals were an extinct species of archaic humans who inhabited Europe and Western and Central Asia. They lived during the Middle to Late Pleistocene Epoch, emerging at least 200,000 years ago and disappearing between 35,000 and 24,000 years ago. Their remains have been found across a wide geographical range, from the Atlantic regions of Europe eastward to Central Asia, and from present-day Belgium in the north to the Mediterranean and southwest Asia in the south.
Evolutionary Lineage and Divergence
Neanderthals share a common ancestor with modern humans, Homo sapiens. This ancestor is Homo heidelbergensis, a species that lived between 700,000 and 300,000 years ago. The Neanderthal lineage diverged from modern humans at least 500,000 years ago.
The early stages of Neanderthal evolution occurred primarily in Europe. Typical Neanderthal skull traits began appearing in the European fossil record during the early Middle Pleistocene, often in specimens classified as Homo heidelbergensis. While Homo heidelbergensis in Europe developed Neanderthal features, a separate population in Africa evolved into Homo sapiens.
Distinctive Characteristics and Adaptations
Neanderthals possessed a robust skeletal structure, with a shorter, stockier body compared to modern humans, an adaptation thought to conserve heat in cold environments. Their cranial features were distinctive, characterized by a long, low skull, a heavy and rounded brow ridge, a large middle part of the face, angled cheekbones, and a prominent occipital bun. Their large noses may have helped humidify and warm cold, dry air.
Their brains were large, averaging around 1,640 cubic centimeters for males and 1,460 cubic centimeters for females, which is larger than the average for any living human population. Neanderthals developed sophisticated tool-making technologies, notably the Mousterian industry, which involved the Levallois flaking technique. This method allowed them to prepare a stone core to produce flakes of specific sizes and shapes, creating a versatile range of tools for hunting, butchering, and preparing animal hides.
Neanderthals were skilled hunters of large animals, using wooden spears, some tipped with stone points. Their diet included large game like mammoths and woolly rhinoceros, along with plant foods. They controlled fire for warmth and cooking. There is also evidence of symbolic thought, including deliberate burials of their dead, sometimes with offerings like flowers, and the use of natural pigments such as red ochre and manganese oxides.
Interaction with Modern Humans
Neanderthals coexisted with early modern humans, Homo sapiens, for several thousand years in Europe and Western Asia. Modern humans arrived in Europe around 45,000 years ago.
Genetic evidence confirms that interbreeding occurred between Neanderthals and non-African modern humans. This interbreeding began around 50,500 years ago. As a result, non-African modern human populations today carry between 1% and 4% Neanderthal DNA in their genomes. The presence of Neanderthal DNA in modern humans suggests that some acquired genes were beneficial for Homo sapiens adapting to new environments outside Africa.
Theories of Decline and Disappearance
The disappearance of Neanderthals around 40,000 years ago is complex, with scientific consensus pointing to a combination of factors. One hypothesis involves competition with Homo sapiens for resources. Modern humans may have had advantages in tool technology, social organization, or communication, allowing them to exploit food resources more effectively.
Climate change is another factor. While Neanderthals survived many climatic fluctuations, their extinction coincides with a period of intense climatic shifts that may have led to a decline in their prey. Such shifts could have depopulated regions, which were then repopulated by immigrating Homo sapiens.
Demographic disadvantages, such as small, isolated Neanderthal populations, may have made them more vulnerable. Low genetic diversity and inbreeding could have weakened their populations, reducing their ability to adapt. Disease transmission from modern humans may also have played a role. Finally, assimilation through interbreeding with the larger Homo sapiens gene pool could have gradually reduced the distinct Neanderthal population until they disappeared.