Taphonomy is the study of what happens to an organism’s remains from the moment of death until discovery. The term originates from the Greek words “taphos” (burial) and “nomos” (law). It acts as a forensic science for the past, allowing researchers to decode the history of remains and artifacts. While its roots are in paleontology, taphonomy is a key tool in modern archaeology for interpreting the journey of objects into the geological record.
The Processes of Site Formation
Archaeological sites are not static snapshots of the past but are dynamic environments shaped by numerous processes over time. These transformative forces can be broadly categorized into natural and cultural processes. Understanding these forces is the first step in deciphering a site’s history, as they dictate how materials are preserved, altered, or destroyed.
Natural processes are environmental factors that physically and chemically alter sites. Physical weathering from sun, wind, and rain can degrade surfaces and break down materials. Water transport can scatter artifacts and bones far from their original location. Soil chemistry also plays a role, as acidic soils may dissolve bone while preserving organic materials like pollen. Biological agents, from tree roots breaking pottery to rodents moving smaller items, constantly modify the archaeological record.
Cultural processes involve human activities that disturb a site after its initial formation. Subsequent generations may disrupt earlier layers by digging foundations for new structures or creating storage pits. Agricultural activities like plowing can churn the upper layers of a site, moving artifacts both horizontally and vertically. People may also scavenge older, abandoned sites for durable materials like stone to reuse in their own constructions, further altering the original context.
Interpreting Site Disturbance
Analyzing the evidence left by site formation processes allows archaeologists to distinguish between natural events and human actions. This interpretive work filters the “noise” of post-depositional changes to isolate evidence of original human behavior. Taphonomy provides the analytical toolkit for this detailed work.
A direct comparison of marks left on bone is a classic example of this process. Sharp, V-shaped incisions are characteristic of cut marks made by stone or metal tools used for butchery. In contrast, the gnaw marks left by carnivores like hyenas are broader, U-shaped grooves, often accompanied by puncture marks. By identifying these distinct signatures, archaeologists can differentiate between a human hunting site and an animal den.
Similarly, archaeologists can distinguish between a pile of naturally fallen rocks and a deliberately dismantled wall. A collapsed wall often shows patterns in how the stones are positioned, reflecting its original construction. Natural rockfall, on the other hand, tends to be more random in its distribution. This analysis of positioning and fracture patterns helps reveal the history of structures long after they have fallen into ruin.
Reconstructing Past Environments and Behaviors
Taphonomic analysis moves beyond individual artifacts to reconstruct entire past landscapes and the human behaviors that occurred within them. The condition of remains provides a wealth of data about the paleoenvironment. This context is necessary for building a reliable picture of how people lived and interacted with their surroundings.
The preservation state of certain materials can reveal specific environmental conditions. For instance, the exceptional preservation of fragile items like insect wings indicates they were buried quickly in an oxygen-poor, waterlogged setting like a bog. Conversely, a collection of animal bones that are heavily weathered and cracked suggests the site was exposed in an open, arid landscape for an extended period. These taphonomic clues act as environmental proxies.
This environmental reconstruction directly informs behavioral interpretations. Recognizing that a large accumulation of animal bones in a cave was dragged there by hyenas prevents the misinterpretation of the site as a human hunting camp. Taphonomic data can also help determine seasonality. The presence of specific migratory animal remains or certain plant pollens can indicate whether a site was occupied year-round or only during specific seasons, offering a more nuanced understanding of human settlement.
Taphonomy in Archaeological Practice
The principles of taphonomy are foundational to modern archaeological fieldwork and analysis. One of its contributions is debunking the “Pompeii Premise”—the mistaken belief that most archaeological sites are perfectly preserved moments frozen in time. The dramatic preservation at Pompeii is a rare exception, and taphonomy provides the tools to understand the complex histories of more common sites.
A clear application of these principles is seen in the analysis of early human sites. Archaeologists study animal bones to reconstruct prehistoric diets and subsistence strategies. By distinguishing tool marks from scavenger damage, they can determine which animals humans were hunting and how they were processing the carcasses. This provides direct evidence of early human behavior and technological capabilities.
The methods of taphonomy also extend into the field of modern forensic science. The same principles used to determine the post-depositional history of an ancient bone are applied to analyze crime scenes. Forensic investigators use taphonomic analysis to understand what happened to remains after death, helping to determine the time and circumstances of a crime.