The story of humanity is written not in books, but in stone, bone, and the earth itself. The term “prehistoric humans” refers to all species in our ancestral line that existed before the invention of writing approximately 5,200 years ago. This period, known as prehistory, covers millions of years of evolution, from the earliest human relatives in Africa to the anatomically modern humans who spread across the globe.
This era encompasses the Stone Age, a vast expanse of time defined by the use of stone tools. Understanding this deep past requires piecing together clues from scattered fossils, ancient tools, and the remnants of long-extinct settlements. These artifacts provide a fragmented but compelling narrative of how our ancestors lived and the foundational changes they underwent that shaped the modern world.
Key Species in Human Evolution
The human family tree is not a straight line but a branching bush with many offshoots. Among the earliest recognized members of our genus, Homo, was Homo habilis, or “handy man.” Living in eastern and southern Africa between approximately 2.4 and 1.4 million years ago, this species was notable for its association with the first widespread stone tool industry, the Oldowan toolkit. Though small in stature with long arms, Homo habilis had a larger brain capacity than its predecessors.
Following Homo habilis was Homo erectus, the “upright man,” who appeared in Africa about two million years ago. This species represents a shift in human evolution, characterized by a larger body, more human-like proportions, and a significantly larger brain. This increase in brain size was likely fueled by a diet that included more meat. Homo erectus was the first human ancestor to migrate out of Africa, with fossils found across Asia and parts of Europe. They developed a more sophisticated tool technology known as the Acheulean industry.
Emerging much later, Homo neanderthalensis, or Neanderthals, inhabited Europe and parts of Asia from around 400,000 to 40,000 years ago. They were robustly built, an adaptation to the cold climates of Ice Age Europe, and possessed brains as large as, or slightly larger than, our own. Their cultural and technological capabilities were complex, including the creation of sophisticated Mousterian tools. Evidence suggests they hunted large animals and used fire.
Our own species, Homo sapiens, emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago. These early modern humans had faces that were remarkably similar to people today, though their braincases were more elongated. Over tens of thousands of years, Homo sapiens spread across Africa and eventually to every other continent on Earth. They developed increasingly complex tools, engaged in symbolic expression, and ultimately outlasted all other human species.
Daily Life and Survival Strategies
For the vast majority of prehistory, human ancestors lived as hunter-gatherers. This way of life was defined by mobility and a reliance on the natural environment for sustenance. Small, nomadic groups moved across the landscape, following animal migrations and the seasonal availability of plants. This subsistence strategy required an intimate knowledge of the local ecosystem.
The diet of prehistoric people was varied and depended on the region and climate. Archaeological evidence, such as animal bones with cut marks, shows they processed carcasses of large animals like deer, bison, and woolly mammoths. Hunting required cooperation and planning. Foraging provided a wide range of other foods, including fruits, nuts, roots, and edible plants, which supplemented the calories gained from hunting.
Shelter was often temporary and opportunistic. Caves and rock overhangs provided natural protection from the elements and predators, and many well-preserved archaeological sites are found in these locations. In more open areas, early humans constructed simple shelters from branches, animal hides, and large bones. These dwellings were likely occupied for short periods before the group moved on.
Social organization was centered on small, cooperative bands, likely consisting of extended family groups. Living in these communities was a practical necessity for survival. It allowed for the sharing of food, cooperative hunting and gathering, and mutual defense against predators. The size of these groups was limited by the amount of food that could be sourced from the surrounding territory.
Technological and Cultural Milestones
The evolution of technology and culture marks some of the most profound shifts in the human story. The development of stone tools began with the simple Oldowan choppers of Homo habilis. This technology progressed to the more symmetrical Acheulean hand-axes of Homo erectus. Later, Neanderthals created diverse Mousterian toolkits, which involved preparing a stone core to strike off a perfectly shaped flake. This trajectory culminated in the highly specialized blade tools of Homo sapiens.
The control of fire was another transformative development. The ability to create and maintain it provided warmth, protection from nocturnal predators, and a way to cook food. Cooking made meat and tough plants easier to digest, unlocking more nutrients and calories, which may have supported the evolution of larger brains. Hearths also became social centers where groups could gather.
The emergence of art and symbolism provides compelling evidence of advanced cognition. Beginning around 100,000 years ago, early Homo sapiens started to think symbolically. This is seen in the use of personal ornaments like shell beads, the application of pigments like ochre, and the intentional burial of the dead, sometimes with grave goods.
This symbolic capacity later expanded into the form of cave paintings, such as those found in Lascaux and Chauvet in France, which depict animals with great detail. Small, carved figurines, like the Venus of Willendorf, also appeared during this period. These creations signal a rich inner world of belief, ritual, and abstract thought.
The Dawn of a New Era
The long epoch of the hunter-gatherer lifestyle began to change with the Neolithic Revolution, which started around 10,000 B.C. This marked the transition from nomadic foraging to settled agriculture. Instead of following herds and searching for wild plants, people began to actively cultivate crops and domesticate animals. This process began independently in several parts of the world, including the Fertile Crescent.
The domestication of plants like wheat and barley, and animals such as goats, sheep, and cattle, provided a more reliable food source. This change had profound consequences for human society. For the first time, people could produce a surplus of food, which allowed them to stay in one place. This led to the establishment of permanent villages and a departure from nomadic patterns.
The move to settled life triggered a cascade of other developments. With a stable food supply, populations began to grow rapidly. Larger communities required new forms of social organization to manage resources and labor. The foundations were laid for the emergence of towns and, eventually, the world’s first cities. This agricultural transformation set the stage for the development of complex civilizations.