India faces a severe environmental challenge, with pollution impacting millions across the nation. In 2023, India ranked as the third most polluted country globally, behind Bangladesh and Pakistan. The average population-weighted fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentration in India was recorded at 54.4 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3), exceeding the World Health Organization’s guideline of 5 μg/m3 by more than tenfold. This contamination presents significant health risks to nearly 1.36 billion people who reside in areas where annual average particulate pollution levels surpass WHO guidelines.
Prominent Forms of Pollution in India
Air pollution is a major concern, especially in India’s urban centers. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5), consisting of particles 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter, is a primary component. These particles can penetrate deep into the lungs and bloodstream. Delhi consistently records some of the highest PM2.5 levels globally, with its average concentration reaching 102.1 µg/m3, twenty times the WHO limit. In 2023, Begusarai in Bihar was identified as the most polluted metropolitan area worldwide, with a PM2.5 value of 118.9 µg/m3, followed by Guwahati and New Delhi.
Water pollution poses a threat to India’s natural resources, particularly its major rivers. The Ganges and Yamuna rivers, despite their cultural and ecological significance, are heavily contaminated by untreated sewage, industrial discharges, and agricultural runoff. The Yamuna, for example, receives an estimated 800 million liters of largely untreated sewage and 44 million liters of industrial effluents daily, with a 22 km stretch in Delhi alone accounting for nearly 80% of the river’s total pollution. This contamination leads to mass fish deaths and a decline in aquatic biodiversity, disrupting ecosystems and the livelihoods of local communities.
Land and plastic pollution also present a challenge. India generates approximately 3.3 million tons of plastic waste annually, with a substantial portion being single-use plastics. Much of this waste is either openly burned or ends up in landfills, rivers, and oceans, causing long-term environmental damage. Inadequate infrastructure for waste segregation, collection, and disposal further exacerbates these problems, leading to widespread littering and contamination of soil and groundwater.
Primary Drivers of Pollution
Industrial and energy production contribute to India’s pollution. Industries such as leather, cement, plastic, garments, sugar, steel, and petroleum release substantial amounts of pollutants into the air and water. Thermal power plants, for example, contribute to particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxide emissions, which can cause respiratory issues and acid rain. Industrial pollution is estimated to account for 51% of India’s air pollution.
Agricultural practices also contribute to pollution, particularly crop residue burning. Farmers often burn crop stubble after harvesting, especially in states like Punjab and Haryana, as a quick and inexpensive method to clear fields for subsequent crops. This practice releases air pollutants, including particulate matter (PM2.5), carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and volatile organic compounds. In 2017, burning approximately 24% of India’s total crop residue resulted in emissions of 824 gigagrams of PM2.5 and 211 teragrams of CO2 equivalent greenhouse gases.
Vehicular emissions and rapid urbanization are also drivers of air pollution. The increasing number of automobiles on the roads, particularly in urban areas, releases pollutants such as particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. In Delhi, vehicular emissions are estimated to contribute almost 41% of the city’s air pollution. Rapid urbanization leads to increased construction activities, which generate dust and debris, further deteriorating air quality.
Waste mismanagement contributes to land and water contamination. India generates around 62 million tonnes of municipal solid waste annually, with only about 70% collected and a mere 12 million tonnes treated. The remaining waste is often dumped in open spaces or landfills, leading to soil and groundwater contamination. The lack of proper waste segregation at the source and insufficient infrastructure for processing and disposal means plastic waste and other hazardous materials frequently pollute rivers and other natural environments.
Impacts on Public Health and Ecosystems
Pollution in India impacts public health, leading to disease and premature mortality. Air pollution is linked to a rise in respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. In 2019, approximately 1.67 million deaths in India were attributed to air pollution, accounting for 17.8% of the country’s total deaths. Long-term exposure to PM2.5 can lead to decreased lung function, asthma, bronchitis, and an increased risk of lung cancer.
Water pollution contributes to waterborne illnesses. Contaminated water sources, often a result of untreated sewage and industrial effluents, can lead to diseases such as cholera and gastrointestinal disorders. The ingestion of heavy metals through contaminated vegetables, a consequence of soil pollution from industrial waste, also presents long-term health risks, including organ damage.
Pollution also impacts ecosystems, affecting biodiversity. Water pollution in rivers, particularly from industrial discharges and agricultural runoff, causes mass fish deaths and a loss of aquatic biodiversity. Harmful agricultural runoff containing nitrates and phosphates can result in algal blooms, which deplete oxygen levels and create “dead zones” where aquatic life cannot survive.
Soil degradation is another impact, with pesticides and industrial chemicals reducing soil fertility and contaminating crops. These substances also harm non-target organisms, such as pollinators, which are essential for plant reproduction and ecosystem health. Air pollution can additionally damage forests, contributing to acid rain and altering food webs that rely on healthy forest ecosystems.
Governmental Mitigation Strategies
The Indian government has initiated several programs to address pollution. The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), launched in January 2019, aims to improve air quality across 131 cities in 24 states and union territories. This program sets a target of reducing particulate matter (PM10) concentrations by up to 40% by 2025-26, using 2017 as a baseline year. It promotes city-specific clean air action plans that target sources like road dust, vehicular emissions, waste burning, and industrial pollution.
The Swachh Bharat Mission (Clean India Mission), specifically its urban phase 2.0, focuses on sanitation and waste management. This initiative includes goals for remediating legacy dumpsites, achieving 100% waste segregation at the source, and increasing capacity for waste treatment, processing, recycling, and recovery. These efforts aim to minimize waste sent to landfills and reduce open burning, which contributes to air pollution.
Policies promoting cleaner transportation and energy sources are also being implemented. The Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME-II) scheme encourages the use of electric vehicles to reduce vehicular emissions. Stricter vehicle emission standards, such as the Bharat Stage (BS) norms, are also being phased in to control pollutants from automobiles. These strategies aim to mitigate pollution across various sectors.