At Tufts University, biologist Michael Levin’s work suggests that alongside the genetic code, there is a bioelectric code. This concept proposes that cells use electrical signals to communicate and organize themselves into complex anatomical structures. This represents a shift from a purely gene-driven view of biology, where electrical conversations between cells direct form and function.
This framework likens the genetic code to a computer’s hardware, the components available to the system. The bioelectric code acts as the software, instructing those components on how to assemble. Levin’s research explores how learning to “rewrite” this biological software could make it possible to guide and correct anatomical development.
The Bioelectric Code
The concept of a bioelectric code is distinct from the rapid electrical spikes associated with nerve and muscle cells. Instead, it focuses on the slow, steady voltage gradients that exist across the membranes of nearly all cells. These gradients, known as resting potentials, are not merely byproducts of cellular activity but are instructive signals that guide how tissues and organs develop. This form of cellular communication orchestrates growth and pattern formation.
The machinery behind this code consists of two primary components: ion channels and gap junctions. Ion channels are proteins in a cell’s membrane that act like gates, controlling the flow of charged ions such as sodium and potassium. The movement of these ions establishes the cell’s specific voltage state. This electrical state is then communicated to adjacent cells through gap junctions, which are small tunnels directly connecting the cytoplasm of neighboring cells.
Through these mechanisms, large groups of cells form electrically coupled networks, capable of storing and processing anatomical information. This network functions as a collective intelligence, where each cell has access to a “map” of the organism’s target anatomy. This bioelectric layer of information operates in tandem with the genetic code. By altering these electrical patterns, it is possible to change developmental outcomes without any modification to the organism’s DNA.
Reprogramming Anatomy in Planarians
The regenerative capabilities of the planarian flatworm provide a compelling model for investigating the bioelectric code. These simple organisms can regrow any part of their body, a process guided by specific bioelectric patterns. A planarian possesses a distinct bioelectric signature that specifies the location of its head and tail. This electrical map ensures that if the worm is cut, it regenerates correctly.
Levin’s team demonstrated that this anatomical blueprint could be intentionally rewritten. They first mapped the specific voltage gradient that corresponds to a “head” identity in a normal planarian. Subsequently, they used a chemical agent to temporarily disrupt the gap junctions—the channels that allow cells to communicate electrically. This brief interruption was sufficient to alter the stored bioelectric pattern.
The result of this bioelectric reprogramming was a worm that regenerated with a head at both ends of its body. This demonstrated that the bioelectric information could override the default genetic instructions. When these two-headed worms were cut again, the fragments regenerated into two-headed worms, even without further chemical treatment. This showed that the new anatomical pattern was durably stored in the cellular electrical network.
Further research suggests that information beyond just anatomy might be stored in these non-neural networks. Experiments indicate that some learned behaviors in planarians can survive decapitation, with the memories reappearing after the head regenerates. This finding supports the hypothesis that information is distributed throughout the body’s tissues, encoded within the bioelectric fabric.
Bioelectric Control of Development and Regeneration
Building on principles from planarians, research has expanded to bioelectric control in more complex vertebrates like frogs. These experiments show that manipulating bioelectric signals can correct developmental errors and induce regeneration of complex structures. One notable example involved inducing the growth of functional eyes on tadpoles’ tails. By altering the membrane voltage of tail cells to match the bioelectric signature of an eye, Levin’s lab prompted those cells to develop into a complete, working eye that could send visual data to the spinal cord.
This approach has also been used to correct genetic defects. In the “Picobelly” experiments, researchers targeted a lethal genetic mutation in frogs that causes severe gut malformation. By manipulating the bioelectric state of the embryo at a key stage, they were able to prevent the defect from manifesting, allowing the frogs to develop normally. This provided evidence that bioelectric interventions can override genetically encoded errors.
Levin’s work has extended to adult limb regeneration, a capability frogs do not naturally possess. The team developed a wearable bioreactor, the “BioDome,” placed over the amputation site of an adult frog’s leg. This device contained a silk-based gel with a five-drug cocktail designed to modulate the local bioelectric environment. After 24 hours of exposure, the frogs entered an 18-month period of regeneration, regrowing a functional, leg-like appendage.
The Creation of Xenobots
Xenobots are novel living organisms designed by artificial intelligence and constructed from frog stem cells. These biological machines are not genetically modified; their existence is a product of rearranging normal cells into a new configuration. The process begins with an AI running simulations to design a body shape capable of performing a specific task, such as moving a small particle.
Once the AI produces a successful design, scientists bring it to life. They harvest precursor cells for the skin and heart from frog embryos. These cells are then manually sculpted into the configuration specified by the AI’s blueprint. The natural contractility of the heart muscle cells provides the force for movement, while the skin cells provide a stable structure.
Xenobots exhibit emergent behaviors that are not explicitly programmed. They can move in a coordinated fashion, navigate their environment, and even self-heal when damaged. They have also demonstrated a novel form of replication. When placed in an environment with loose stem cells, a swarm of Xenobots can gather these cells into piles, which then mature into new, functional Xenobots. This process, termed kinematic replication, showcases the ability of cells to cooperate and build new forms when placed in a new context.
Implications for Medicine and Biology
Discoveries in bioelectric control have implications for medicine and our understanding of biology. By framing cancer as a condition where cells lose their connection to the body’s anatomical goal, bioelectricity offers a new perspective. It may be possible to “reprogram” cancerous cells by restoring their normal electrical communication with surrounding tissues.
The ability to correct developmental errors in frog embryos suggests a potential pathway for addressing birth defects. By identifying and modulating abnormal bioelectric patterns during embryonic development, it might be possible to prevent congenital malformations from occurring. This approach would not involve gene editing but would work with the existing genetic hardware to guide it toward a healthy outcome.
The success in frog limb regeneration points toward a long-term goal of achieving similar results in humans. The “BioDome” represents a proof-of-concept for using a temporary, localized treatment to initiate a long-term regenerative response. This research reinforces that bioelectricity is a layer of control in biology, the “software of life” that we are now beginning to understand how to read and write.